Week 6 Flashcards
(179 cards)
1
Q
How do we lose fluid?
A
Urine
Faeces/diarrhoea
Vomit
Blood loss
Third space loss (body cavities)
Inflammatory exudate
Insensible losses
- e.g. sweating & breathing (fluid lost but only to a small degree)
2
Q
What are the 3 major compartments within the body where fluid is stored
A
3
Q
Define dehydration and give an example
A
4
Q
Define hypovolaemia and give an example
A
5
Q
What are the signs of hypovolaemia
A
6
Q
What are the signs of dehydration
A
7
Q
Define shock
A
8
Q
What are the 4 types of shock
A
9
Q
Label the types of shock
A
10
Q
How can we recognise the 4 types of shock
A
11
Q
Gives some signs of fluid loss, clinical signs and reason in cattle
A
12
Q
Gives some signs of fluid loss, clinical signs and reason in dog/cat
A
13
Q
What are the types of fluids
A
Crystalloids
- isotonic, hypertonic & hypotonic
Colloids
Transfusion products
14
Q
Describe isotonic fluids
A
Used for fluid resuscitation
for both hypovolaemia & dehydration
they equilibrate across membranes rapidly to restore both intravascular & extravascular spaces
effect on intravascular volume expansion can be shirt lived
15
Q
Give examples of isotonic fluids
A
Hartmann’s:
- contains sodium, chloride, potassium, calcium, lactate +- magnesium
- useful in most patients
- esp. metabolic acidosis
sodium Chloride (saline):
- 0.9% sodium chloride only
- less balanced in terms of electrolytes & quite acidifying
Dextrose solutions (D5W):
- 5% glucose in 0.18% saline
- dangerous fluid type because glucose is rapidly metabolised leaving 0.18% sodium chloride which is basically water & thus hypotonic
- dont use, if you need glucose supplementation add glucose to saline or Hartmanns
16
Q
Give examples of hypertonic fluids
A
Saline in various strengths (usually 7.2%)
- draws fluid into intravascular space (only use IV)
- fluid drawn from interstitial space so dont use in dehydrated patients
- works rapidly (useful for hypovolaemic shock)
- low volumes required so useful for large animals
- draws fluid from brain so useful in head trauma
- sodium can be dangerous so only use 1/2x per 24h & always follow with isotonic fluids
17
Q
Give examples of hypotonic fluids
A
usually saline (0.45% NaCl)
- rarely used
- main use would be hypernatraemia (high sodium in blood) to dilute it
- be careful how quickly you reduce hypernatraemia
* sodium balances across BBB
* if you drop Na quickly –> osmotic gradient into brain –> flood brain causing cerebral oedema
18
Q
Describe colloid fluids
A
controversial
contain macromolecules which mimic albumin (protein) in blood to provide oncotic pressure
should provide constant buff to intravascular volume by helping retain fluid
but has been shown to increase risk of death & acute kidney injury in dogs
19
Q
Describe transfusion products
A
20
Q
What are the routes for fluid administration
A
intravenous
- rapid & continuous
* useful for dehydration & hypovolaemia
Intraossesous
- almost as fast as IV but difficult to place & complications (rare) can be severe
- isotonic fluids only
Subcutaneous
- reliant on good subcutaneous blood supply to redistribute fluid so only for mild dehydration
Oral
- relies on functioning GIT
- often used in LA
- can be combined with nutrition via feeding tubes
- use isotonic
- too much water is bas
Rectal
- effective in horses
- only for dehydration & not in diarrhoea
Intraperitoneal
- reliant on good peritoneal blood supply
- can be painful
- rarely used
21
Q
A
22
Q
A
23
Q
A
24
Q
A
25
26
27
28
How do you calculate rate of fluid administration
29
How can you reduce risk of a reaction when using transfusion products
30
How can you check if fluid is working (5 parameters and change you expect to see)
31
What are signs of fluid overload
32
1. What is the problem?
2. Hypovolaemic or dehydrated?
3. Which fluid type?
4. Rate?
1. Diarrhoea --> fluid loss +- metabolic acidosis
2. dehydrated
3. Hartmanns
4. picture
33
What are some common pitfalls of fluid therapy
34
35
Describe normal gross appearance of urine and what the following (abnormal) can indicate:
- dark colour
- red
- brown/green
- brown
- orange/blue
- cloudiness
- fishy odour
- sweet odour
36
What can glucose in urine indicate
37
What can bilirubin in urine indicate
38
What can ketones in urine indicate
39
What can blood in urine indicate
40
What can proteins in urine indicate
41
What are normal USG ranges in dog, cattle, horse, cats
42
What USG in dogs is hyposthenuric, isosthenuric and hypersthenuric
43
What cells in urine sediment exam are normal in small numbers
erythrocytes
leukocytes
epithelial cells
44
Name the structures found in urine sediment
45
What is this
Struvite
46
What is this
Struvite
47
What is this
Calcium oxalate dihydrate
48
What is this
49
What is this
Struvite
50
What is this
Calcium carbonate (equine)
51
What is this
Cystine crystals (canine)
52
What is this
Cast (red blood cell)
53
What is this
Red & white blood cells
54
What is urolithiasis
stony secretions in bladder or urinary tract
55
Where in urinary tract are blockages with uroliths most common in male sheep?
sigmoid flexure
glans penis
neck of bladder
vermiforme appendage
56
Is obstructive urolithiasis more or less common in female sheep then male sheep?
More common in males due to longer & narrower urethra
57
Why does obstruction with uroliths cause lethargy, penis flexing & fever (pyrexia)
lethargy due to pain
penis flexing because animal is trying to pass urine
fever due to inflammation
58
What are the potential causes of urolithiasis if not successfully treated
bladder rupture
toxin build up
59
How can you confirm diagnosis of urolithiasis
ultrasound
blood test
- urea, creatinine & potassium
60
How can you treat urolithiasis in rams
catheterisation & then surgery
or change diet
61
In what form do aquatic organisms excrete nitrogenous waste
ammonia
62
In what form do reptiles/birds excrete nitrogenous waste
uric acid
63
Describe features of uric acid
Made in liver
Highly insoluble:
- water conservation
- storage in eggs
Tubular secretion via reptilian-type nephrons
Excretion is independent of:
- urine flow rate
- tubular water reabsorption
- hydration state
64
Describe gout & its causes in birds & reptiles
Hyperuricemia (excess uric acid) => precipitates out of blood into organs and joints => gout (visceral and articular)
Causes:
- renal disease
- high dietary protein - too many AAs => more uric acid
- dehydration - urates produced can't be flushed => renal gout
- nephrotoxic drugs - damages renal tubules
65
What are urates
Precipitate:
- uric acid
- protein
- Na+ (carnivorous)
- K+ (herbivorous)
Enters cloaca and mixes with faecal material
66
Why are birds and reptiles able to excrete urates even when dehydrated?
Uric acid crystals precipitate => no osmotic pressure so does not draw water out with it
67
Why is urinalysis useless in birds and reptiles?
Due to mixing of urine, urate and faecal material
68
How does the renal portal system in exotics protect against ischemic necrosis of the kidney?
Blood from tail/caudal body travels to the heart via the kidney
Portal system ensures blood flow to tubules (does not supply glomerulus)
69
Describe the clinical implications of the renal portal system in exotics
Drug pharmacokinetics:
- if drugs injected into caudal region, goes to kidneys first => damage or excretion
Caudal mesenteric vein:
- contributes to renal portal system
- disease of GIT => kidneys
- toxins from gut
70
Label the different fish nephrons
what structure is missing from all 3?
Loop of henle missing
71
Label the reptile nephron
72
describe avian nephrons
70-90% Reptile type nephrons:
- no LoH
- Cortex only
10-30% Mammalian type nephrons:
- LoH
- cortex -> medulla
Limited urine concentration
73
Describe the avian response to dehydration
Aginine vasotocin (avian ADH)
- stimulated by increased plasma osmolarity
- constricts afferent arteriole (renal portal system maintains perfusion)
-controls tubular water permeability
Urine can be retropulsed from the urodeum into the colon and caecum for sodium-linked water reabsorption
74
Describe sodium linked water reabsorption in avian/reptilian colon & caecum
Active transport of Na out of colon
Cl ions follow Na
Water follows via osmosis
75
Describe reptile response to dehydration
Arginine vasotocin => afferent arteriole constriction and increased tubular water permeability
Reverse peristalsis of urine from urodeum => rectum/colon
High tolerance for severe dehydration
76
Describe post-renal urine modification in exotics
Cloaca, colon, bladder:
- ions
- water
- protein
- Na+, K+
- urates
Voided urine not reflective of renal function
77
Why can kidney disease cause paralysis in avian species
Kidneys closely associated with lumbar and sacral plexus
- spinal nerves run through kidney parenchyma
Kidney disease => renomegaly => pressure on nerve plexi => paralysis or lameness
78
Describe anatomy of avian kidneys
Paired
Retroperitoneal
Large
79
Describe lizard renal anatomy
Caudal aspect of kidneys fused in many species
Only some species have a bladder
80
Describe snake renal anatomy
Right kidney cranial to left
No bladder - urine stored in distal colon or flared ends of ureters
81
Describe chelonian renal anatomy
Kidneys in caudal coelom
Bladder = single central structure +- paired accessory bladders
Bladder osmotically permeable
- important for hibernation (hydrate them before hibernation to fill bladder)
No pelvis, pyramids, cortex or medulla
Fewer nephrons than mammals
Lower GFR
- less blood flow allows them to conserve water
Poorly developed glomeruli
No LoH (can’t concentrate urine)
82
Describe sexual segment in some male squamates
Cells between distal tubule and collecting duct
Cells change in breeding season:
- cuboidal => columnar
- increase in size
- large eosinophilic
granules secreted into lumen
83
Describe salt glands of some avian & reptile species
Modified nasal/lacrimal/salivary glands
Excretion of salt without water loss
Excreted by burrowing, sneezing, tongue protrusion
Dries to white powder (can be confused as fungal infection)
High salt exposure => hyperplasia/hypertrophy
84
Describe fish renal anatomy
Single kidney
Length of coelom
Cranial division:
- endocrine
- haematopoietic
Caudal division:
- filtration (nephrons)
No LoH => hypo-osmotic urine
85
Describe fish osmoregulation & nitrogenous waste
Water movement by osmosis across skin and gills
Nitrogenous waste (ammonia) excreted by gills, some in urine
86
Describe freshwater fish osmoregulation
Ion loss/water gain across gills and skin
Kidney excretes water - high GFR
Gills:
- NaCl active uptake
- excrete ammonia
Dietary intake NaCl
Produce large amounts of very dilute urine
More & larger glomeruli
87
Describe saltwater fish osmoregulation
Lose water across gills and skin
Drink seawater to replace
Gills:
- excrete NaCl
- excrete ammonia
Kidneys:
- small or no glomeruli
- remove excess divalent ions (Mg2+)
88
89
Describe amphibian renal anatomy
Renal portal veins:
- blood from hindlimbs => kidney => heart
Caecilians (legless, wormlike lizards):
- one kidney
- full length coelom
Caudates (salamanders, newts) and anurans (frogs, toads):
- paired kidneys
- posterior kidneys
- retroperitoneal
90
Describe amphibian cloacal bladder
Outpouching of cloacal wall
No direct connection with excretory ducts
Urine seeps into cloaca and is forced into bladder for urine storage
Cloacal opening is closed by sphincter muscle
91
Describe osmoregulation of aquatic amphibians
Skin water permeable - prone to evaporative water losses
Kidney must excrete excess water
Excrete ammonia through gills/skin
92
Describe osmoregulation of terrestrial amphibians
Water conservation important
Evaporative losses
Urinary bladders stores water (aquaporins control movement)
Decreased GFR with reduced water
Most excrete urea
93
Describe the clinical relevance of aquatic species osmoregulation
Skin is important for fluid balance and respiration:
- disease/damage can be catastrophic for health
- no surgical scrubbing (destroys mucous coating)
- sensitive to environmental contaminants
- minimise handling
- can administer fluids and meds by putting them in water
- water quality very important
94
What is the issue here
Articular gout = uric acid deposits in synovial capsules and tendon sheath of joints
95
Describe the murexide test
Used to confirm gout
Joint aspirate mixed with nitric acid and dried
Ammonia added
If turns mauve = uric acid present = gout
96
What causes increased & decreased uric acid production in reptiles
97
What does pink shell lesions suggest in aquatic chelonian species?
septicaemias
98
How can you prevent septicaemia in aquatic chelonian species
Keep enclosure clean
Clean water thoroughly
Test water quality regularly
Remove things that could cause injury
Ensure correct temps
Balanced diet
Reduce stress
99
What clinical pathological markers can be used to assess renal function?
GFR
Blood conc of:
- urea
- creatinine
- Phosphorous
- SDMA
- potassium
FGF-23
Urinalysis:
- USG
- Fractional clearance
- Proteinuria
100
What does renal clearance depend on
101
How dod you calculate clearance
102
When does clearance = GFR
If the substance is:
- filtered
- not reabsorbed
- not secreted (non-toxic, not plasma protein bound)
103
Why is creatinine a better marker to use for assessing renal function than urea
104
Why is it important to get a baseline creatinine level for each animal when using it to assess GFR
A small change in creatinine (still within normal range) can be present with a large change in GFR
105
What does proteinuria suggest?
issue with filtration in glomerulus
106
What are the causes of pre-renal, renal & post renal proteinuria
Pre renal - overload of proteins e.g., glucosuria in hyperglycaemia
Renal (glomerular) - damaged glomeruli
Renal (tubular) - unable to resorb normal amounts of filtered protein
Post renal - inflammatory, haeorrhagic conditions e.g. urinary tract inflammation
107
How is cystatin C used to assess renal function
Measured in blood - estimate of GFR
Measured in urine - should be completely resorbed in tubules, presence suggests tubular dysfunction/damage
108
What is fractional clearance
the clearance of a substance (X) compared to creatinine that is neither absorbed or secreted
Example:
Volume depletion => sodium retained => fractional clearance falls
Tubular disease => sodium lost => fractional clearance rises
109
How is USG used to determine if there is problem with concentrating ability?
Needs correlation with hydration state and/or azotaemia
110
What is azotaemia and indicator of in an animal with healthy renal function?
poor renal perfusion
111
What is azotaemia an indicator of in an animal with typical renal perfusion?
insufficient nephrons
112
Why is hyposthenuria an ADH problem & not a renal failure problem
Kidney is functioning to produce dilute urine
ADH is not working to concentrate it in distal convoluted tubules and collecting duct
113
What are the types of urinary casts (cylinduria)
Hyaline - protein
Cellular - RBC/WBC/epithelial
- suggests disease process in tubules
Granular - fine/coarse
- implies longer stasis
Waxy - end product of degeneration
- suggests long period of stasis
114
What is the outcome of acute kidney insufficiency?
hyperkalaemia
115
What is the outcome of chronic kidney insufficiency
Progressive as functional nephrons decrease:
inappropriate USG => azotaemia => hyperphosphataemia, acidosis
116
Are these pre-renal or renal insufficiencies
117
What is the difference between renal disease & failure
Failure - when compensatory mechanisms of diseased kidneys are no longer able to maintain the functions of the kidney
Disease needs to be severe to cause failure
118
What is uraemia
severe clinical syndrome caused by accumulation of nitrogenous waste products
119
What are the 3 levels of acute kidney injury
Pre-renal
- poor perfusion to kidneys
Renal (poor prognosis):
- acute toxicities
- kidney pathology
Post-renal:
- obstruction of urinary tract
- Leak/rupture
120
What is the outcome of acute kidney injury
Azotaemia
Hyperkalaemia
Acidosis
121
What are the clinical findings of acute kidney injury
Rapid and progressive
VERY sick (poor prognosis)
Can be reversible in some cases
Lethargy
Depression
Anorexia
Vomiting
Dehydration
No urine (anuria) or little urine (oliguria
Large painful bladder and kidneys
122
Describe chronic kidney disease
Common (esp. in cats)
prolonged loss of renal tissue
Progressive - chronic interstitial nephritis
Irreversible
Clinical signs aren’t apparent until significant loss of functioning renal tissue
prognosis variable (depends on stage of kidney disease)
123
What are the clinical signs of chronic kidney disease
PU/PD (first to appear)
Vomiting
Anorexia
Weight loss
Lethargy
Small knobbly knees
non-regenerative Anaemia
Poor haircoat
Oral lesions
Pale mucous membranes
Dehydration
Osteodystrophy
- in young dogs with CKD
- kidneys unable to maintain Ca levels so get Ca from bone
Ascites or oedema
- protein loss in urine --> not enough protein to maintain oncotic pressure in blood --> fluid leaks out
Poor platelet function
124
How can you differentiate between CKD & AKI?
CKD has history of PU/PD
Small kidneys in CKD, swollen in AKI
Non-regenerative anaemia in CKD
Parathyroid glands large in CKD
Hyperkalaemia in AKI
Poor haircoat and skin in CKD
125
Why does CKD cause PU/PD?
Progressive nephron loss => declining GFR
Compensatory rise in functional nephron reserve GFR => hyperfiltration
Cannot reabsorb water due to increased GFR => polyuria
126
Describe secondary renal hyperparathyroidism due to renal failure
Low iCa due to renal failure:
- phosphate is retained and binds iCa
- urinary losses of iCa
- lower dietary intake of calcium due to inappetance
- less absorption from gut (compromised calcitriol)
=> increased PTH to compensate for iCa loss
=> increased FGF-23 to reduce phosphate levels
127
What is the treatment for renal hyperphosphataemia?
Diet with reduced phosphate
Oral phosphate binders
Oral calcitriol therapy
128
Define micturition
129
How is retrograde flow of urine prevented
130
What muscles control the release of urine + describe them
Detrusor muscle:
- around bladder
- smooth muscle
- parasympathetic and sympathetic
- sensitive to stretch
Internal urethral sphincter:
- thickening of bladder musculature
- smooth muscle
- sympathetic supply
External urethral sphincter:
- striated muscle
- voluntary control via somatic NS
131
Label the muscles of the bladder
132
describe the somatic motor supply involved in micturition
Innervates external urethral sphincter
Pudendal nerve from S1-2
Contracts to retain urine
Voluntary
Control comes from cerebral cortex
133
Describe the parasympathetic supply involved in micturition
Pelvic plexus (S1-3 outflow) innervates detrusor muscle
ACh = neurotransmitter
Contracts muscle => squeezes and empties bladder
Control comes from pons & cerebellum
134
Describe the sympathetic supply involved in micturition
L1-4 outflow
Norepinephrine =
neurotransmitter
Control comes from pons & cerebellum
Detrusor muscle:
- relaxes muscle to allow bladder to fill
- inhibitory action
- beta receptor
Internal urethral sphincter:
- contracts sphincter to retain urine
- excitatory action
- alpha receptor
135
describe the detrusor reflex
Increased vesicular pressure from bladder
filling achieves threshold => detrusor muscle contracts
Contraction against urethral sphincter tone
Positive feedback mechanism
- once started usually continued until bladder emptied
136
Describe the micturition reflex
Combination of detrusor reflex with inhibition of sympathetic and voluntary motor supply to bladder and urethra
137
Describe autonomic bladders
No voluntary control of urination
Reflex pathways intact so bladder empties spontaneously
138
Describe voluntary control of bladder
Suppression of autonomic reflexes
If bladder overfilled, intact bladder will empty automatically
139
what drugs are used for animals with weak bladder that cannot hold urine?
Alpha-sympathomimetic drugs:
- Increases internal urethral sphincter tone
140
What is the effect of skeletal muscle relaxant on micturition
Decreases external urethral sphincter tone
141
Describe the effects of parasympathomimetic drugs on micturition
Increased detrusor tone
142
Define incontinence
the lack of voluntary control of excretory functions
143
What clinical syndromes are disorders of micturition
Inappropriate voiding
Inadequate voiding with urine overflow => dribbling
Increased urination frequency
Reduced bladder capacity
Incomplete voiding
144
Define dysuria, stranguria, pollakuria, nocturia & enuresis
145
Describe the clinical examination for disorders of micturition
History of voiding
Bladder size - palpation
Urethral sphincter tone - squeeze bladder to check
for leakage
Integrity of detrusor/micturition reflex - squeeze bladder
to stimulate urination
Perineal reflex - check for ‘winking’ around perineal region to check sacral nerve function
Full neurological assessment
146
What is the result of an upper motor neurone lesion vs lower motor neurone lesion
147
Where are lower motor neurone lesions of the bladder and what are the results?
Sacral spinal segment damage
Pelvic plexus
Absent voluntary micturition
Atonic bladder
Atonic urethral sphincters
Absent detrusor reflex
Concurrent reduced perineal reflex and anal tone
Bladder flaccid and easily expressed
148
Where are upper motor neurone lesions of the bladder and what are the results?
High spinal cord
brain dysfunction
Absent voluntary micturition
Increased urethral tone
High volume urinary retention
Development of automatic bladder - no voluntary control
149
What are some anatomical (non-neurological) disorders causing incontinence
Ectopic ureter:
- Congenital malformation
- ureters enter directly into urethra
- continuous dribbling
- can get 1 ectopic ureter & 1 normal (dribbling + normal urination)
Acquired abnormalities of lower urinary tract:
- neoplasia
- calculi (bladder stones block urethra)
- Trauma
150
Describe the clinical findings and treatment of calculi/bladder stones blocking the urethra
Large bladder
does not release urine when squeezed
Need to relieve pressure via cystocentesis or catheter
151
Describe the effect of trauma on the lower urinary tract
Cannot urinate
Urine goes into abdomen
Bladder will be normal size
Will not be trying to urinate
Fluid in abdomen => very ill
152
Describe disorders of bladder function
Functional outflow obstruction:
- reflex dyssynergia
- Initiation of detrusor reflex with reflex contraction of urethral sphincter
- tries to urinate but cannot
Sphincter mechanism incompetence
Secondary detrusor muscle atony:
- stretch related injury => loss of contractility
Urge incontinence:
- micturition reflex at low volume
- bladder mucosa irritation
153
Describe sphincter mechanism incontinence
Normal micturition reflex but sphincter too loose in between micturition reflexes => urine leaks when there is increased abdominal pressure e.g., when excited
154
Describe signalment of sphincter mechanism incontinence
More common in female due to short urethra
More common in large/giant breeds
More common in spayed female (hormonal changes)
155
Describe treatment strategies for sphincter mechanism incontinence
alpha adrenergic agonists (e.g., phenylpropanolamine)
Oestrogens
Surgery - culposuspension:
- band around bladder and pulled up into abdomen stretches urethra
- urethra stretched => increased tone and decreased diameter
156
How does tail stretch injuries in cats cause bladder atony?
Sacral nerves stretch and pulled out of spinal cord (avulsion) => lost function
157
What is bovine pyelonephritis?
Inflammation of renal pelvis from an ascending bacterial UTI
Most common in adults weeks/months post-partum
158
What is a pyometra and how/when do they usually develop?
Uterus filled with bacteria and pus, often during oestrus when cervix is more open and bacteria can enter and cause infection
159
What are the clinical signs of bovine pyelonephritis?
bloodstained or cloudy urine
Acute colic
Fluctuating temp
Drop in milk yield
Left kidney enlargement
160
Why does dehydration increase risk of gout in captive birds and reptiles?
Uric acid excretion is independent of GFR
Uric acid still produced and secreted even though GFR is low due to dehydration
But uric acid cannot be flushed out => uric acidaemia (uric acid build up in blood) => precipitates in tissues and joints = gout
161
How do you prevent dehydration in captive birds and reptiles causing gout?
Adequate supply of drinking water
Bath +/- misting
Adequate humidity
Appropriate diet (not too high in protein)
Measures to prevent renal disease e.g., good hygiene and biosecurity
162
What adaptation do reptiles in hot and dry environments have to conserve water?
Fewer nephrons
Lower GFR
Excretion of uric acid instead of urea:
- Urea is high insoluble
- Comparatively lower volume of water is needed for excretion
Dramatic reduction/cease glomerular filtration in times of stress/water scarcity
Salt gland for excess Na/K secretion
Cloacal/colonic reabsorption of water
163
What diet would you recommend feeding pet tortoises
164
Name some pros & cons of different tortoise husbandry setups:
- outside all year round
- inside in a vivarium all year round
- inside on a tortoise table
165
What 3 things must you tell tortoise owners to do in month leading up to hibernation?
166
It is recommended that a tortoise has a vet consult prior to hibernation. when should this be and what is assessed?
167
What 3 things should a tortoise owner monitor throughout hibernation? and what changes to these things mean they would need to be woken up?
168
How long should tortoises hibernate for
6-12 weeks
169
After hibernating how long does it normally take for tortoises to eat, urinate & defecate?
170
What is Reptoboost and why might it be given to a tortoise that seems weak after hibernation
171
172
What diet would you recommend for pet rabbits
173
What type of uroliths do rabbits tend to get and why?
174
What are 5 common risk factors of urolith formation in rabbits
175
What are common clinical signs of uroliths in rabbits
enlarged/painful bladder
solides in bladder palpable
blood in bladder/urine
176
Why is cystocentesis risky in rabbits?
they have large intestines so high risk of peritonitis
177
What are the common causes of PU/PD and why do they cause it?
Kidney disease - poor filtering so cannot reabsorb much
Diabetes insipidus - resistance to ADH or reduced ADH secretion
Diabetes mellitus - more glucose in filtrate so water stays in filtrate
Cushings -inhibition of ADH
Addisons - low aldosterone needed for RAAS - loss of conc gradient in medulla
Hypercalcaemia - association with decreased inner medullary tissue solute content
178
Describe process of osmotic diuresis
179
Why are UTIs common in dogs with diabetes mellitus?
Urine is more dilute => allows more bacterial growth as chemicals have been diluted
Urine contains sugars which attracts bacteria and help facilitate bacteria growth
