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Public Health Biology > Week 4 - Reproduction and Contraception > Flashcards

Week 4 - Reproduction and Contraception Flashcards

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AP® Biology flashcards Biology 101 flashcards
1
Q

What is reproduction?

A

The biological process by which new individual organisms (“offspring”) are produced from their “parents

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2
Q

How is reproduction related to genetics?

A

Essential in the creation of diversity

Supports natural selection as a probable mechanism of creating complexity and diversity of life

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3
Q

How is reproduction related to public health?

A

Central aspect of human life and health

Includes family issues, maternal and child health, STDs, etc.

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4
Q

What are sex hormones? What hormone/s are released by men and women? Give examples of others.

A

Chemical messengers that are
secreted directly into the blood, which carries them to organs and tissues of the body to exert their functions

Men: testosterone
Women: estrogen, progesterone

Examples: oxytocin, follicle stimulating hormone (FSH), and luteinizing hormone (LH)

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5
Q

How is sex hormone secretion regulated?

A

Hypothalamus increases production of gonadotropin-released hormone (GnRH)

GnRH: amino peptide acid that is synthesized and secreted from hypothalamic neuron and binds to receptors in the gonadotropes

GnRH triggers the anterior pituitary to release LH and FSH

FSH and LH trigger testosterone production in testes and estrogen production in ovaries

Main actions of testosterone: spermatogensis and development of secondary sex characterization (broad shoulders, facial hair growing, lowering voice, etc.)

Main actions of estrogen: growth and maturation of ovarian follicles and release of ovum from mature follicle (LH is primary hormone responsible for the release of egg from mature follicle) and development of secondary sex characteristics (pubic hair grows, breasts develop, and hips broaden)

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6
Q

What is the menstrual cycle?

A

Regular natural changes that occur in the uterus and ovaries that make pregnancy possible

Required for the production of ovum, and for the preparation of the uterus for pregnancy

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7
Q

How are hormones regulated during the menstrual cycle?

A

Hypothalamus produces GnRH which acts on the anterior pituitary which secretes FSH and LH

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8
Q

What two groups are not using the most effective methods of contraception? Why?

A

Women and teens

Women lack basic knowledge about contraception

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9
Q

What are the 5 reasons for why sharing responsibility in choosing a BC method in the interest of both partners?

A

Can enhance relationship trust

Can be a good way to practice personal and sexual topics

Women respect men who share consent

Men shouldn’t assume that a woman will take care of it

Dealing with an unplanned child is difficult

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10
Q

How can partners share responsibility in choosing a birth control method?

A

Ask about BC before intercourse

Read and discuss options together

Attend a class or clinic together

Share expenses

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11
Q

What are the 6 basic types of contraception?

A

Fertility awareness methods

Barrier methods

Spermicides

IUDs

Hormonal contraception

Operative sterilization

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12
Q

What are 8 details about fertility awareness methods?

A

Also known as Natural Family Planning

Based on understanding ovulatory cycle

Require periods of abstinence & careful recording of events throughout cycle

Cooperation very important

Free, safe, and acceptable to all
spiritual beliefs

Require extensive initial counseling

25% of women will experience unintended pregnancy in first year

Some women combine with barrier methods (use during fertile periods) and/or combine types of FAM

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13
Q

What are the pros (7) and cons (3) of fertility awareness method?

A

Pros: inexpensive, safe, can be used while breastfeeding, you can be pregnant as soon as you stop, no side effects, no effects of hormones, and no need for medication

Cons: needs a lot of discipline, support from all sexual participants, and unrelated medication can affect ability to apply FAM methods by inducing irregular periods

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14
Q

What is the calendar method used for?

A

Determining the “safest time” to have sex

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15
Q

What are 5 examples of barrier methods? What are barrier methods usually used with?

A

Male condom: thin sheet that covers penis to collect sperm and prevent it from entering woman’s body; reduce risk of STDs

Female condom: thin, flexible pouches; reduce risk of STDs

Diaphragm: shallow, flexible cup made of latex or soft rubber that is inserted into vagina before intercourse and blocks sperm from entering uterus

Cervical cap: smaller and more rigid forms of diaphragm

Vaginal sponge

Usually used with spermicides

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16
Q

What are 4 details about spermicides?

A

Available as creams, jellies, foams, film, suppositories

May require up to 30 minutes to become effective

Minimally effective if used alone

May cause skin/mucus membrane irritation, allergic reaction

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17
Q

What are 6 hormonal contraceptives?

A

Injected contraceptives

Progesterone-only oral contraceptives

Combined oral contraceptives

Implanted contraceptives

Vaginal ring

Contraceptive patch

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18
Q

What is the most common hormonal contraception? What is the new formulation?

A

Depo-Provera (DMPA-IM 150 mg/1 ml) most commonly used (medroxyprogesterone)

Given IM q 12 weeks

Depo-subQ provera 104 (DMPA SC 104 mg/0.65 ml) new formulation

Given SC q 12 weeks

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19
Q

What medical condition can depo-provera cause?

A

Osteoporosis

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20
Q

What are 5 details about combined oral contraceptives?

A

Birth control pills with both estrogen & progesterone

Most taken daily for 21 days, with 7 days of placebo or no pill
(exceptions: Seasonale, Seasonique, Yaz)

Many formulations- different strengths, different progesterones

Very effective if used correctly

No protection against STD

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21
Q

Who shouldn’t use combined oral contraceptives?

A

People who are sensitive to estrogen side effects

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22
Q

How do progestin-only contraceptives work? (5 details)

A

May or may not interfere with ovulation

Thins uterine lining

Lower levels of estrogen in pill prevent pituitary gland from releasing LH (luteinizing hormone)

With no LH, egg doesn’t mature and ovulation doesn’t occur

Progestin in the pill thickens cervical mucus, blocking passage of sperm into the uterus

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23
Q

How do combined oral contraceptives prevent pregnancy?

A

Suppress ovulation through negative feedback to hypothalamic-pituitary axis

Thickening of cervical mucus to prevent sperm entry

May also slow tubal motility, disrupt transport of ova, change function of endometrial vessels, cause endometrial atrophy, and inhibit implantation (not proven)

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24
Q

What are the 2 forms of intrauterine contraception (LARC)?

A

Paragard (copper T) and MIRENA (releases levonorgestrel)

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25
Q

How does intrauterine contraception prevent pregnancy?

A

Copper based IUD prevents sperm from fertilizing egg and may prevent egg from attaching to womb

If fertilization occurs, the physical presence of the device can prevent the fertilized egg from implanting into the uterine lining by causing inflammation of the uterine wall

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26
Q

What are 4 details about intrauterine contraception?

A

Provide long-term, highly effective contraception

Risks include perforation, dysmenorrhea, expulsion

Also may be used as emergency contraception (Paragard only)

Lasts from 3-6 years

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27
Q

What are 6 details about implanon (implanted contraception)?

A

Single rod implanted under skin of upper arm

Provides contraception for 3 years

Releases progestin continuously

Extremely effective

Like all progestin-only methods, causes irregular bleeding in many women

Must be inserted by health care provider & removed later

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28
Q

What are 6 details about emergency contraception?

A

Used after unprotected sex, contraceptive failure, or unsure
protection

Should be taken as soon as possible after incident

No medical contraindications except established pregnancy

Most effective in first 72 hours

Providing EC is the standard of care for women who request it

Copper IUD insertion (99% effective); can insert up to 7 days after coitus

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29
Q

What is the most effective emergency contraception?

A

Copper IUD

30
Q

What is the difference between minipills and emergency contraception?

A

Difference between progestin only pills and EC is that EC contains higher doses of hormones and should not be taken regularly

31
Q

How do hormonal contraceptives work? (4 details)

A
  1. Gonadotropin releasing hormone (GnRH) triggers release of gonadotropins FSH and LH
  2. FSH and LH trigger ovulation
  3. Estrogen and progesterone hormones inhibit LH, FSH, and GnRH secretion, preventing ovulation
  4. Progesterone also thickens cervical mucus to prevent passage of sperm into the uterus and changes uterine lining to inhibit implantation
32
Q

What are 5 details about operative sterilization?

A

Surgical procedures that permanently prevent pregnancy

Very difficult to reverse

Vasectomy and tubal ligation

Extremely effective and cost-effective

Does not protect against STI

33
Q

What occurs during a vasectomy?

A
  1. Urologist cuts and litigates (ties off) the ductus deferens
  2. Sperm are still produced but cannot exit the body
  3. Sperm eventually deteriorate and are phagocytized
  4. A man is sterile but retains sex drive and secondary sex characteristics because testosterone is still produced
34
Q

What occurs during tubal ligation? (5 details)

A

Surgical procedure performed on a woman

Fallopian tubes are cut, tied, and cauterized

Prevents eggs from reaching sperm

Failure rates vary by procedure, from 0.8%-3.7%

May experience heavier periods

35
Q

What are the most to least effective contraception methods?

A
  1. Permanent sterilization
  2. Implant
  3. IUD
  4. Injectable
  5. Pill
  6. Patch
  7. Ring
  8. Diaphragm
  9. Male condoms
  10. Female condoms
  11. Withdrawl (pull out)
  12. Sponge
  13. Fertility-awareness based methods
  14. Spermicides by themselves
36
Q

What is an important distinction of contraception?

A

Contraception is narrowly defined by some as the prevention of conception, and more broadly by other sources as the prevention of pregnancy

37
Q

What is abortion under either definition of contraception?

A

Not contraception but a means of birth control or family planning

38
Q

What is a spontaneous abortion?

A

Demise of a pregnancy without medical or mechanical assistance

Also called a miscarriage

39
Q

What is the etiology of a spontaneous abortion?

A

Etiology varies by gestational age

First 2 weeks: most are attributed to unsuccessful embryo implantation or chromosomal abnormalities

40
Q

What is an induced abortion? What are the 2 types?

A

Termination of pregnancy by medical or surgical means before the point of fetal viability

Elective (at the request of the mother) and therapeutic abortion (serious fetal anomalies)

41
Q

What are the medications used for induced abortions? How do they cause an abortion?

A

Mifepristone: blocks progesterone

Misoprostol: stimulates uterine contraction and cervical softening

42
Q

What is a surgical abortion? What are the details of the procedure?

A

Mechanical removal of the pregnancy from the uterus in the first 14-16 weeks

Procedure called dilation and cutterage occurs when cervix is mechanically dilated with dilated rods and the products of conception are removed by suction

43
Q

What are the most effective contraception methods?

A

Operative sterilization and IUDs

44
Q

What is the only method of birth control that prevents the spread of STIs?

A

Barrier methods

45
Q

What is asexual reproduction?

A

An organism can reproduce without the involvement of another organism

46
Q

Is asexual reproduction limited to single-celled organisms?

A

Asexual reproduction is not limited to single-celled organisms

Example: cloning of an organism is a form of asexual reproduction

47
Q

What is sexual reproduction?

A

Sexual reproduction typically requires the sexual interaction of two specialized organisms called gametes, which contain half the number of chromosomes of normal cells and are created by meiosis

Typically a male fertilizes a female to create a zygote

48
Q

What controls the process of sexual development?

A

Sex hormones

49
Q

What is the role of testosterone? What is it essential for?

A

Testosterone: develops male reproductive tissues (testes and prostate) as well as promote secondary sexual characteristic development such as increased muscle mass, bone mass, and growth of body hair

Essential for health, wellbeing, and the prevention of osteoporosis

50
Q

What is estrogen? What are the 5 ways estrogen can influence physical characteristics?

A

Estrogen: primary female sex hormone; made by the ovaries and placenta during gestation period

Body effects:

  1. Makes bones smaller and shorter
  2. Broadens pelvis
  3. Narrows shoulders
  4. Increases fat storage around hips and thighs
  5. Influences body hair to become finer and less pronounced while making hair on woman’s head more permanent
51
Q

What is progesterone secreted by?

A

Hormone secreted by ovarian follicular cells prior to ovulation; also secreted in larger amounts by corpus luteum

52
Q

What is the corpus luteum?

A

A hormone secreting structure that develops in an ovary after an ovum has been discharged but usually disintegrates after a few days unless pregnancy has been established

53
Q

How does fertilization affect the corpus luteum?

A

Will usually go for 10-12 days and then regress if fertilization doesn’t occur

Maintained for first 2-3 months of pregnancy if fertilization occurs

54
Q

What are the 4 functions of the corpus luteum?

A
  1. Prepare uterus for pregnancy by shifting the endometrium from proliferation to secretion
  2. After fertilization, progesterone is responsible for organizing the vascular of the endometrium for implantation of the zygote (blastocyst)
  3. Also inhibits contraction of the uterine wall and helps maintain pregnancy
  4. Helps in suppression of premature milk protein synthesis
55
Q

What is oxytocin?

A

Diffused into blood in response to stretching of cervix and female internal organs through labor and parturition

Responds to stimulation of nipples from breastfeeding (responsible for bonding with baby and milk production)

56
Q

What is follicle stimulating hormone (FSH)? What is its function in each set of sexual organs?

A

FSH: gonadotropin that is secreted by anterior pituitary along with LH

Function: grow ovarian follicles in women and participates in sperm maturation in men

In the ovary, stimulates follicular genesis, which prepares the female reproductive tract for fertilization, implantation, and pregnancy

In testes, plays central role in testicular development and spermatogenesis

57
Q

What is luteinizing hormone? What is its function in each set of sexual organs?

A

Luteinizing hormone: regulates the reproductive cycle

In the testes, LH binds to a receptor on specific kind of cells called Leydig cells and stimulates the synthesis and secretion of testosterone

In females, responsible for ovulation

58
Q

What are the 3 major phases of the menstrual cycle? Which phases correspond with phases of the ovarian cycle?

A

3 phases: menstrual, proliferation, and secretory phase

Menstrual and proliferation: follicular

Secretory: luteal

59
Q

How long is the menstrual cycle? When does it begin? When do each of the other phases begin?

A

Menstrual: typically 28 days long and begins on day 1 of menstruation

Proliferation: occurs between days 6/7 to 14 and coincides with the growth and maturation of the follicles

Secretory: occurs between 16-28 days and coincides with formation of corpus luteum

60
Q

Give 4 details about proliferation.

A

Controlled by estrogen secreted by the thicker antenna around the follicles

During this period, endometrium thickens 2-3 fold

Surface epithelium that covers endometrium is present

Endometrial glands and spiral arteries increase in number and length but do not reach the surface

61
Q

What are the 3 steps regarding the secretory phase if fertilization occurs?

A
  1. Progesterone is secreted by luteum and stimulates the glandular epithelium to produce a glycogen rich material
  2. Endometrium glands become wide, tortuous, and coiled
  3. If an oocyte or egg is released and is fertilized, the zygote begins to implant in the endometrium around day 20
62
Q

What do hormones do during pregnancy? List 4 specific functions.

A

Hormones play a role in triggering changes in mother and fetus

  1. Maintains uterine lining
  2. Prevents menstruation
  3. Prepares mammary gland for lactation after parturition
  4. Affects mother’s metabolic rate and enhances fetal growth
63
Q

What does the corpus luteum do during the first week after fertilization?

A

During first week after fertilization, corpus luteum continues to secrete hormones such as progesterone that are essential to the maintenance of normal female reproductive cycle

64
Q

What is the relationship between the zygote/blastocyst and the corpus luteum? (3 details)

A

After zygote/blastocyst embeds itself in uterine wall, it forms the placenta and secretes a hormone called human chorionic gonadotropin

Prevents degeneration of corpus luteum so it can continue to secrete estrogen and progesterone that are needed for pregnancy maintenance

Menstruation does not occur due to high progesterone levels

65
Q

What are hormones like during the 1st trimester of pregnancy? (3 details)

A

During first trimester, estrogen and progesterone are primarily secreted by the corpus luteum whereas the placenta is responsible for the HCG

Responsible for maintaining nutritional support to the growing fetus

HCG levels peak at 8 weeks of gestation and cause increased estrogen and progesterone secretion

66
Q

What are hormones like during the 2nd trimester of pregnancy? (4 details)

A

During second trimester, HCG levels gradually decline and only estrogen and progesterone are sufficient for maintenance of pregnancy

Estrogen is responsible for increasing blood flow and maintenance of endometrium during pregnancy

High levels of estrogen and progesterone limit milk production

Progesterone also inhibits contraction of the endometrium to prevent premature birth

67
Q

What are hormones like during the 3rd trimester? (2 details)

A

During final trimester, estrogen and progesterone levels continue to rise; however, major source is the placenta and not the ovary because the corpus luteum is no longer in place

Just before birth, placenta secretes increased levels of corticotropin releasing hormone that in turn increases levels of estrogen secretion

68
Q

What is contraception?

A

Prevention of pregnancy

69
Q

What are the 5 steps of the secretory phase if fertilization does not occur?

A
  1. If implantation does not occur, the secretory endometrium goes into a premenstrual phase during the last 2 days of the menstrual cycle
  2. Ischemic phase is last part of secretory phase with ischemia happening due to blood deficiency
  3. The endometrium constricts intermittently due to decreased hormone production by the degenerating corpus luteum
  4. Hormonal decrease results in stoppage of granular secretion, loss in interstitial fluid, and a shortening of the endometrium
  5. As the ischemic period nears its end, the spiral arteries constrict longer and blood seeps through the arterial rupture walls into the surrounding strokes and the pool blood breaks through the endometrial surface, resulting in bleeding into the uterine lumen and the beginning of a new menstrual phase
70
Q

What are the 4 functions of estrogen?

A
  1. Enhance and maintain membrane that lines uterus
  2. Increase size and enhance blood flow to the endometrium
  3. Stimulate muscles in the uterus to develop and contract
  4. Help deliver infant and placenta via contractions

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