Week 4-Body Image and Mental Health

Question 1

What is Body Image?

Answer 1

-A subjective picture of one’s own physical appearance.

-Established both by self-observation and by noting the reactions of others.

Question 2

What are 2 constructs about body image to consider?

Answer 2

1. Body image evaluation: one’s evaluative thoughts and beliefs about their physical appearance.
2. Body image investment: behaviours aiming at managing or enhancing the way one looks.

Question 3

Why is Body Image Important? (Neumark-Sztainer et al., 2006; Swami & Furnham, 2008)

Answer 3

Body dissatisfaction is related to harmful behaviour:
-Binge eating
-Unhealthy weight control behaviour
-Smoking (men)

Lower uptake of healthy/preventative behaviour:
-Lower levels of physical activity
-Lower fruit and vegetable intake
-Breast self-examination

Question 4

Body Image and Gender: What is it like among females?

Answer 4

-Higher tendency of body image dissatisfaction (Fallon, Harris and Johnson, 2014).

-Starts in childhood, around 6 – 7 years (Dohnt and Tiggemann, 2004, 2005).

-Linked with a desire for thinness (Swami et al., 2010).

Question 5

What did Hargreaves and Tiggemann (2006) investigate regarding male body image taboo?

Answer 5

• Qualitative study which aimed to examine adolescent males regarding body image investment and body image evaluation

1. Some males care but pretend they don’t
2. Generally wanted to be muscular but reported other issues e.g., acne
3. Taboo? i.e., appearing feminine or gay if talking about these issues

Question 6

What did McCabe and Ricciardelli (2004) find about body image and gender?

Answer 6

• Strong similarities in levels of body dissatisfaction of male and female children.
• During adolescence, boys are about equally divided between wanting to lose weight and increasing weight.
• In adulthood, men evidence a stronger desire to lose weight as they get older.

Question 7

What did Furnham, Badmin & Sneade (2002) find about body image and gender?

Answer 7

• Both males and females are dissatisfied with their bodies. However, direction is different
• Men – 37% wanted to be heavier vs 43% wanted to be thinner
• Women – only 8% wanted to be heavier
• Seems this problem is evident in both genders but each gender shows different concerns

Question 8

Define Representations (Hall, 1997)

Answer 8

“Representations are images, descriptions, explanations and frames for understanding what the world is and why and how it works in particular ways.” (in this case it acts as a comparison showing whether we do or do not look like certain individuals).

Question 9

Define a Reflectionist Approach

Answer 9

Media functions as a mirror of reality, it should reflect what is real e.g., news reports

Question 10

Define a Constructionist Approach

Answer 10

Media serve as a reconstruction of certain elements of reality in order to represent them and give them a meaning e.g., cover magazines

Question 11

Why do media representations matter? (Foucault, 1991)

Answer 11

-Representation = Power (the more you see something, you more you see it as the standard).

-BINARY OPPOSITIONS: one pole designed as dominant against which the other one is defined (e.g., skinny good, overweight bad)

-STEREOTYPES: reducing opposed identities to simplified, exaggerated traits e.g., lazy, pathetic, ugly etc.,

Question 12

What did Eggbert and Belcher (2012) find about the correlation between reality television and body image?

Answer 12

• 472 young adults
• Exposure to RTV and body dissatisfaction
  measured
• Higher exposure to RTV shows associated
  with body dissatisfaction

Question 13

What did Tiggemann and Slater (2013) find about the correlation between internet use and body image?

Answer 13

• 95.9% of 1087 girls aged 12-14 had access to the Internet in their home.
• Time spent on the Internet associated with
  internalization of the thin ideal, body
  surveillance, and drive for thinness.

Question 14

Define Appearance Exposure

Answer 14

Time spent on specific websites with appearance-focused content.

Question 15

What did Meier and Gray (2014) find about the correlation between Facebook and Appearance Exposure?

Answer 15

• 103 middle and high school females
• APPEARANCE EXPOSURE SCORE: activities related to use of FB photo applications (e.g. tagging) relative to total FB use (e.g. taking a quiz).
• Appearance exposure, but not overall FB usage, significantly correlated with weight
  dissatisfaction

Question 16

What are some challenges in Correlational Research?

Answer 16

➢ Time spent on a medium doesn’t tell us anything on what people see

➢ Correlation isn’t causation

➢ How can we find out what type of content is influential? (could do an experimental study which could compare an image with a body or without/edited photo or unedited photo, and give participants a Body Satisfaction Questionnaire to fill following this to see if these images have an impact)

Question 17

What did Grabe, Ward and Hyde (2008) find when conducting a meta-analysis on ad exposure?

Answer 17

• 77 studies, 141 effect sizes
• Effect size = -.28 – Small to moderate effect
• Viewing adverts featuring thin models
  makes women feel more dissatisfied with
  their bodies

Question 18

Body Image Theory-Objectification Theory (Fredrickson & Roberts, 1997): What is Objectification?

Answer 18

“Sexual objectification occurs whenever a woman’s body, body parts, or sexual functions are separated out from her person, reduced to the status of mere instruments, or regarded as if they were capable of representing her. In other words, when objectified, women are treated
as bodies – and in particular, as bodies that exist for the use and pleasure of others.”

• Occurs outside of the objectified person’s control.

Question 19

Body Image Theory-Objectification Theory (Fredrickson & Roberts, 1997): How does objectification affect body image?

Answer 19

• View self through objectifying lens (Internalization)
• Third-person perspective
• Looks become part of your own sense of self
• Habitual monitoring of the way you look
  (Body surveillance)
• Strategy to anticipate how you will be viewed and treated by others
• Can be a state (i.e. temporary) or a trait (across situations)

Question 20

What did John Berger (1972) say about Objectification, media and women?

Answer 20

“You painted a naked woman because you enjoyed looking at her, put a mirror in her hand and you called the painting Vanity, thus morally condemning the woman whose nakedness you had depicted for you own pleasure.”

I.e., it is a double-edged sword: made to feel anxious about looking perfect, but then made to feel guilty if you look good

Question 21

Body Image Theory-Objectification Theory (Fredrickson & Roberts, 1997): Where does objectification take place?

Answer 21

• Within interpersonal and social encounters
• Media that shows objectifying interpersonal and social encounters (e.g., snog, marry, avoid)
• Media that spotlight bodies and body parts (implicit sexual gaze) (happens with both genders!)

Question 22

Body Image Theory-Objectification Theory: What is the Objectified Body Consciousness Scale? (McKinley & Hyde, 1996)

Answer 22

• Originally developed for women, but reliability studies indicate it can be acceptable for men too (.79).
• 3 subscales: body surveillance, body shame, and beliefs about body control
• Each subscale has 8-items and is scored on a 7-point Likert scale ranging from strongly disagree (1) to strongly agree (7)

Question 23

Body Image Theory-Objectification Theory: What did Karsay et al. (2020) find about Self-objectification in women?

Answer 23

Aim: to the association between mass media use, self-objectification, and positive body image

Population: Austrian, Belgian, Spanish, and South Korean boys and girls (N = 1,983; Mean Age = 14.41, SD = 1.08)

Measures: different kind of media, self-objectification, positive body image

-Facebook is negatively associated with self-objectification

-Instagram is positively associated with self-objectification but also positive body image too (both for men but negatively associated with body image for women)

-Music videos are negatively associated with positive body image (for women)

-Pornography is positively associated with self-objectification (for men) but negatively associated with positive body image

Question 24

Body Image Theory-Objectification Theory: What did Aubrey (2006) find about Self-objectification in women?

Answer 24

Aim: longitudinal relationship between objectifying media and body perceptions

Design: 2 years panel study, 149 female undergrads

-The more exposed you are to self-objectifcation media content, the more you are likely to have self-objectification tendencies BUT moderated by self-esteem (i.e., strong self-esteem=weaker association)

-Trait self-objectification, body shame and appearance anxiety is associated with less exposure to self-objectifying media (i.e., more likely to avoid this)

Question 25

Body Image Theory-Objectification Theory: What did Tiggemann & Linch (2001) find about Self-objectification in women?

Answer 25

Aim: body image and self-objectification across the lifespan

Sample: 322 women

Measures: of body dissatisfaction, sexual objectification and disordered eating

• Self-objectification, appearance anxiety, and disordered eating decreased with age (i.e., we tend to care less as we get older)
• Self-objectification was found to mediate the relationship between age and appearance anxiety
• Objectification could clarify the changes in body image that occur with age

Question 26

Body Image Theory-Objectification Theory: What did Rohlinger (2001) find about Objectification in men?

Answer 26

• There has been significant movement
  toward advertisements in which the
  male model is objectified.
• Men are being sexualized and
  objectified in an effort to appeal to
  multiple audiences.

Question 27

Body Image Theory-Objectification Theory: What did Leit, Pope, and Grey (2001) find about Objectification in men?

Answer 27

• Examined play girl centrefolds from 1973-1997
• Body fat rated by a trained observer
• Centerfolds became more muscular in later issues and had less fat

Question 28

Body Image Theory-Objectification Theory: What did Hallsworth, Wade, & Tiggemann (2005) find about Self-objectification in men?

Answer 28

• Bodybuilders (N = 31), weightlifters (N = 17), and non-athletic controls (N = 35)
• Bodybuilders had significantly higher levels of self-objectification, body dissatisfaction and drive for muscularity than controls
• For the whole sample, self-objectification was associated with appearance anxiety and body dissatisfaction

Question 29

How is male objectification linked to body image? (Grieve & Helmick, 2008)

Answer 29

Relative to men with low self-objectification scores, men high in self-objectification report:
➢ Greater drive for muscularity
➢ Increased levels of muscle dysmorphia symptoms (the idea that you are never strong enough=compulsive training + eating mostly protein=deteriorates your health!)

Question 30

What did Leit, Grey, and Pope (2002) find about sexual objectification and body dissatisfaction in men?

Answer 30

• College men in 2 groups: muscular men advertisement vs neutral
• Following test of body image perception
  (somatomorphic matrix) i.e., which body looks like theirs, and which one would they want to look like
• Students in the muscular men condition
  showed bigger discrepancy between perceived and ideal muscularity

Question 31

What did Manago et al. (2014) find about sexual objectification beyond body image?

Answer 31

Aim: Associations of use of social networks with
* Body objectification
* Sexual health outcomes

Sample: 467 women and 348 men, using social networks for at least 6 years

Measures:
* Use of Facebook
* Body surveillance
* Appearance self-worth
* Body shame
“I feel like I must be a bad person when I don’t look as good as I could.”
* Enjoyment of sexualisation
“I feel complimented when men/women whistle at me.”
* Sexual assertiveness
“I speak up for my sexual feelings”

Findings:
-For both men and women, the involvement of media leads to objectified body consciousness leading to self-body shaming
-The stronger this is, the less likely they are to be sexually assertive and speak up for themselves in undesired situations

Question 32

Sociocultural model (Fallon, 1990): What is it?

Answer 32

• There’s a culturally accepted body ideal*
• Ideal is apparent and reinforced from
  media
• Body dissatisfaction relates to (mis)match
  between your own body and cultural ideal
  body

*Ideal is dependent on sociocultural factors e.g., skinny for women and muscular for men in western societies

Question 33

True or False: Context in media can determine whether something is actually objectifying

Answer 33

True!

In the film alien there are shots of a woman’s body when stretching and shots of a woman’s body when she is trapped in a tight space (i.e., one conveys the message where the other isn’t necessary!)

Question 34

Sociocultural model (Fallon, 1990): How do we know beauty is “sociocultural”?

Answer 34

❖ In Black women, mainstream television is
unrelated to body satisfaction because it doesn’t speak to their culture (Schooler,
Ward, Merriwether, & Caruthers, 2004)

❖ In male Pacific Islanders, preference for
larger body sizes despite awareness of
Western body image ideals (Wang et al.,
2002)

Question 35

Sociocultural model (Fallon, 1990): What is the Sociocultural Attitudes Towards Appearance Questionnaire? (Heinberg & Thompson, 1995)

Answer 35

• Revised 3 times
• 4 subscales: internalization (general, athlete), pressures, and information
• Can be neutral, for males, or
  for women

Question 36

Sociocultural model (Fallon, 1990): What is the Thin ideal and muscular ideal regarding gender? (Stanford & McCabe, 2002)

Answer 36

• Female ideal body – tall and slender
• Overweight perception regardless of your BMI due to the bombardment of thin messages
• Male ideal body – lean and muscular
• Small and weak perception

Question 37

Sociocultural model (Fallon, 1990): What did Cafri, Yamamiya, Brannick and Thompson (2005) find about the internalisation of thin ideal?

Answer 37

• Meta analysis – all females

What has the strongest effect on of body image?
* Awareness of thin ideal
* Internalisation of the thin ideal
* Pressure to be thin
ALL RELATED TO BODY DISSATISFACTION

*The strongest effect was the internalisation and pressure to be thin

Question 38

Sociocultural model (Fallon, 1990): What did Blond (2008) find about the internalisation of thin ideal?

Answer 38

• Systematic review, 15 studies on men

-An image of ideal bodies relates to body dissatisfaction moderated by Muscle dissatisfaction + Internalization of muscular ideal (i.e., the less happy they are with their muscles, the more they believe they have to be stronger leading to greater body dissatisfaction

Question 39

Sociocultural model (Fallon, 1990): What did Tiggemann (2003) find about the role of media in the internalisation of thin ideal?

Answer 39

Aim: to investigate the relationship between media exposure, body dissatisfaction and disordered eating

Sample: 104 female undergraduate students

Measures
* magazine and television exposure
* body dissatisfaction
* disordered eating
* awareness and internalization of societal ideals

Findings:
-Magazines lead to the internalisation of certain body types, leading to body dissatisfaction and eating disorder tendencies
-TV is not related to internalisation but rather directly has an effect on BD and EDTs

Question 40

Sociocultural model (Fallon, 1990): What did Giles and Close (2008) find about the role of media in the internalisation of thin ideal?

Answer 40

Aim: to study the internalization of appearance ideals and drive for muscularity

Sample: 161 males between the ages of 18 and 36 from a UK university

Measures
* Exposure to lad magazines
* Eating disturbances
* Sociocultural attitudes towards appearance
* Drive for muscularity

Findings:
-Exposure to these magazines lead to the drive for muscularity which is moderated by the internalisation of body ideals
-This means the more likely you are to consume this type of media, the more they’d internalise the message they’d have to look at a certain way, meaning a greater drive for muscularity leading to muscle dysmorphia

Question 41

What is the link between Objectification Theory & Sociocultural Theory?

Answer 41

Similarities:
* Internalisation of body ideals

• Media portrayals as representations of reality
• Ideal as normative, expected, and central to attractiveness

Differences:
* OT is meant to objectify the person as if they were a tool where as ST sees beauty as a measure of success in ones culture due to the advantages seen with it

Question 42

What did Skowronski et al. (2021) find when investigating Sociocultural theory + self-objectification?

Answer 42

Aim: longitudinal associations of adolescents’ use of sexualized video
games (SVG) and sexualized Instagram images (SII) with body image concerns

Design: two waves with an interval of 6 months

T1: the consumption of both kinds of media is positively associated with appearance comparisons and thus thin-ideal and muscle-ideal internalisations

6 months later: consumption of this media led to how individuals valued their appearance leading to body surveillance (an aspect of objectification)

Question 43

Social comparison theory (Festinger, 1954): What is it?

Answer 43

• The drive to determine our social position
• Seek out norms/standards
• Upward comparison (inspiration to improve ourselves)
• Downward comparison (we look at someone ‘worse’ than us to feel better about ourselves)

Question 44

Social comparison theory (Festinger, 1954): What is the Physical Appearance Comparison Scale? (Thompson, Heinberg, & Tantleff, 1991)

Answer 44

• Used to measure the level to which
  participants compared their own
• Responses are rated on a 5-point Likert-type scale from 0(Never) to 4 (Always)
• Higher scores indicated a stronger tendency to compare one’s own appearance with the appearance of others.

Question 45

Social comparison theory (Festinger, 1954): What did Hargreaves & Tiggemann (2009) find about social comparison in men?

Answer 45

Aim: social comparison and media in men

Sample: 104 male undergrads

Design: between-conditions (TV ads with and without muscular models)

Measures: body satisfaction before and after exposure

Results: Exposure to ads with muscular models predicted body dissatisfaction + Low body satisfaction and Body image investment led to a tendency for upward
comparisons

Question 46

Social comparison theory (Festinger, 1954): What did Edson, Tandoc, Ferrucci & Duffy (2015) find about Social Comparisons - Is Facebook Depressive?

Answer 46

-Facebook usage increases feelings of envy, which leads to feelings of depression

-Instagram and Snapchat have been deemed as worse for body image according to research (Vandenbosch et al., 2022)

Instagram also had (Engeln et al., 2020):
-More appearance comparison
-Decreased body satisfaction
-Decreased positive affect
-Increased negative affect

Question 47

Social comparison theory (Festinger, 1954): What did Kleemans et al. (2016) find about social comparison and body image?

Answer 47

• 144 girls (14–18 years old)
• Between-subjects (original vs manipulated; high vs low comparison tendency)
• Generally unaware of manipulated image
• Lower body satisfaction after exposure to
  manipulated photos than original photos
• Moderating effect of social comparison
• Higher comparison tendency associated
  with lower body image
• Stronger negative effect of manipulated
  photos on body image for girls with higher
  comparison tendency

Question 48

Social comparison theory (Festinger, 1954): What did Paulson (2020) find about social comparison and body image?

Answer 48

-47 male college students aged 18-23

-2 x 2 mixed design (pre and post exposure; experimental condition or control)

Exposure to Instagram accounts impacts men’s
* Appearance satisfaction
* Weight dissatisfaction
* State social comparison

Question 49

Social comparison theory (Festinger, 1954): Is instagram depressive? (Lup et al., 2015)

Answer 49

-18–29 year participants

-Positive association between Instagram use and depressive symptoms

-Upward comparisons is negatively associated with depressive symptoms so moderates the positive association above

-The number of strangers followed is a moderator too causing greater depressive symptoms if downward comparisons occur

Question 50

Social comparison theory (Festinger, 1954): What did Tylka & Sabik (2010) find when investigating Social Comparison & Objectification Theory?

Answer 50

-Aim: Explore impact of sexual objectification and social comparison on disordered eating

-Sample: 274 undergraduate females

-Body surveillance is positively associated to disordered eating moderated by social comparisons (the strength of association depended on how likely they compare themselves to others)

Question 51

Social comparison theory (Festinger, 1954): What did Barbierik et al. (2023) find when investigating Social Comparison & Objectification Theory?

Answer 51

*Thin Ideal Internalisation results in body dissatisfaction because it is associated with greater general appearance comparisons

Question 52

What’s Fitspiration?

Answer 52

-Images of the athletic and fit models (or body parts) used to inspire onlookers to
engage in more physical activity.

Question 53

What did Carotte et al. (2017) find about Fitspiration?

Answer 53

86% Instagram content
* 74.2% related to exercise, 19.6% related to food

Females
* 36.4% content with female subjects
* Typically thin but toned
* Full body visible and buttocks emphasized
* More likely to be sexualized

Males
* 27.5% content with male subjects
* Muscular or hypermuscular
* More likely to have their face visible (i.e., not just their body)

Question 54

What’s Fitspiration associated with?

Answer 54

Associated with
* Poor body dissatisfaction in women with high self-objectification tendencies (Prichard et al., 2017)

• Disordered eating and compulsive exercise (Holland & Tiggemann, 2016)

Question 55

What did Tiggemann & Zacardo (2015) find about Social comparison and Fitspiration?

Answer 55

130 female undergraduate students

2 conditions
* Instagram fitspiration quotes
* Control travel images

Measures:
- Body dissatisfaction
- State and trait appearance comparisons

-Fitspiration quotes is associated with body dissatisfaction as the moment they are exposure, they experience state appearance comparison

Question 56

What are facts about Selfies?

Answer 56

• 18.1% girls and 15.2% boys take more
  than 4 selfies/day (Dutta et al., 2016)
• Taking, editing, and posting selfies
  inversely associated with age (Dhir et al., 2016)

Females are more likely to
* take personal and group selfies
* post personal selfies
* crop photos and use photographic filters

Question 57

What did Schlenker & Leary (1982) find about self-presentation (body image and selfies: I.e., why do we take selfies)?

Answer 57

Choosing an “image” to present to others
* Conscious effort
* Goal-oriented
* Usually aiming at social desirability
* But it can depend on the kind of goals

Question 58

Is body positivity actually good? (Mancin et al., 2024)

Answer 58

-Following a greater number of body positive accounts has been associated with greater body dissatisfaction, appearance comparison and body internalisation

-It still focuses on body shape

Question 59

What did Cohen, Newton-John, and Slater (2018) find about Self-Objectification and Selfies?

Answer 59

Aim: Association between Social Networking Sites (SNS) and body image in women

Sample: 259 young women (age 18–29; M = 22.97, SD = 3.25)

Measures
* SNS use
* Selfie activity (8-Item Photo Investment scale & Photo Manipulation scale)
“I take a long time to choose the photo”
* Self-objectification
* Body Image
* Disordered eating

Findings:
-SNS Usage was not linked to body dissatisfaction
-SNS photo investment e.g., posting, profile pictures etc., was linked to body dissatisfaction + disordered eating (where DE is moderated by self-objectification)

Question 60

What did Cohen et al. (2017) find about selfies and sociocultural body ideals?

Answer 60

Aim: what aspects SNS relate to body
dissatisfaction

Sample: 259 women aged 18–29 years

Measures
* SNS use
* Facebook
* Instagram
* Body image concerns

Findings:
-Facebook use regarding engagement in photo activities was related to thin-internalisation
-Instagram use regarding following appearance-focussed accounts was related to thin-internalisation

Question 61

What did Chae (2017) find about selfies and social comparison?

Answer 61

Aim: what determines selfie-editing behaviours?

Sample: 1064 Female smartphone users aged 20 to 39

Design: Wave 1 and Wave 2 one month apart

Measures
* Selfie-taking frequency
* Photo-editing tendencies
* Social comparisons tendencies
* Body dissatisfaction
* Public self-consciousness
* “I’m self-conscious about the way I look”
* “I usually worry about making a good impression”

Findings:
-In Wave 1, selfie-taking frequency, public self-consciousness and social media use was related to comparing themselves to friends, influencers and celebrities
-One month apart, comparison to friends was positively associated with selfie-editing frequency (is it for online self-presentation? for strengthening social networks?)

Question 62

What are possible solutions to preventing/removing body
image concerns?

Answer 62

1. Encourage body appreciation and body functionality
2. Critiquing social/media pressures on body image – The Body Project
3. Promoting media literacy
4. Changing what you see in the media?

Question 63

Solutions: What did Andrew et al. (2015) find about body appreciation?

Answer 63

• 68 women
• Measures of body appreciation
• Following exposure to 11 thin-ideal advertisements
• Participants high in body appreciation experienced less dissatisfaction
• Not experimentally manipulated! (definition of high body appreciation undetermined)

Question 64

Solutions-Body functionality: What is Expand your horizon? (Alleva et al., 2015)

Answer 64

Expand Your Horizon: programme to improve body image by training women to
focus on the functionality of their body (Alleva et al., 2015)

• 81 women with a negative body image
  Randomised to
• Expand Your Horizon programme
• Active control programme

Measures of
* Appearance satisfaction
* Functionality satisfaction
* Body appreciation
* Self-objectification

Participants in the intervention group reported:
* Greater appearance satisfaction, functionality satisfaction, and body appreciation
* Lower levels of self-objectification
Essentially there was a shift in appreciation of how our body serves us rather than how we look

Question 65

What did Stice, Rohde, Durat and Shaw (2012) find about the effectiveness of Body Project?

Answer 65

• Body Project: cognitive-dissonance-based body acceptance intervention
• Designed to help resisting sociocultural pressures to thinness and reduce its pursuit
• Practical constraints (e.g., it has to take place in person with several sessions)
• Internet based intervention?
• 107 Female college students with body dissatisfaction

4 conditions
* Group Intervention
* Internet Intervention
* Controls (educational brochure/video)

Outcomes
* Body Satisfaction
* EDI
* Negative Affect
* Dieting
* thin-ideal internalization

eBody Project participants showed:
* Greater pre-to-post reductions for body
dissatisfaction, dieting, and negative affect
compared to brochure controls
* Significantly greater reductions than video
controls for dieting and marginally greater
reductions in body dissatisfaction
* No difference from intervention participants for thin-ideal internalization, body dissatisfaction, dieting, negative affect or eating disorder symptoms

Question 66

Solutions: Does media literacy work? (Jeon et al., 2012)

Answer 66

• Metanalysis on 51 interventions

Overall a positive effect on
* Media knowledge
* Criticism
* attitudes
* self-efficacy

• More sessions associated with a larger
  impact
• More intervention treatment components associated with a smaller effect

Question 67

Solutions: Are men who identify as a feminist less likely to sexually objectify women? (Modica & Murnen, 2021)

Answer 67

-Values can change in society!

-Men who have a feminist identity, are less likely to accept sexual objectification as they are less likely to be sexist and use porn (both which are positively associated with sexual objectification)