Week 3 H6,8,11

Question 1

How are the sensory cortices organized?

Answer 1

They are organized based on complexity, with areas ranging from V1 to V5 for vision, each processing increasingly complex visual information.

Question 2

What do the primary areas in the sensory cortices handle?

Answer 2

They process basic features of stimuli.

Question 3

What do the secondary areas in the sensory cortices focus on?

Answer 3

They process more complex features, e.g., for vision, areas V1 to V5 process increasingly complex visual information.

Question 4

What is the difference between bottom-up and top-down perception?

Answer 4

Perception depends on both bottom-up (stimuli from the senses) and top-down (e.g., attention, predictions, previous knowledge) processes.

Question 6

Describe the process of visual perception.

Answer 6

Light is reflected from objects
->
enters eyes
->
lens refracts the light
-> projects onto the retina
-> rods (for dark vision) and cones (for color) transduce it into electrical pulses
-> these are carried by ganglion cells
-> their axons bundle to form the optic nerve at the back of the eye -> meet at the optic chiasm
-> processed differently based on left and right visual fields
-> over 90% of the axons in the optic nerve end in the LGN in the thalamus
-> LGN sends signals to the visual cortex.

Question 7

What pathway plays the largest role in visual perception?

Answer 7

The pathway from the LGN to V1.

Question 8

What roles do the suprachiasmatic nucleus and superior colliculus play in perception?

Answer 8

They contribute to the perception of day and night in relation to the circadian rhythm and quick eye movements, respectively.

Question 9

Areas in the visual cortices (V1-V5) have their own functional specialization. What is the specialization of V5?

Answer 9

V5 is specialized for motion.

Question 10

Describe the ventral pathway in visual processing.

Answer 10

The ventral pathway involves the primary visual cortex (V1) → secondary areas (V2 and V3) → inferotemporal cortex (V4). It is known as the ‘what’ pathway due to its involvement in object representation.

Question 11

What does the dorsal pathway in visual processing focus on?

Answer 11

The dorsal pathway goes from the primary visual cortex (V1) → secondary areas (V2 and V3) → motor perception area (V5/MT) → parietal lobe. This is the ‘where’ or ‘how’ pathway because it is involved in location, motion, and action.

Question 12

true/False: The two visual pathways process information independently and later reintegrate within a common brain region.

Answer 12

true

Question 15

What principles are described by the Gestalt psychologists for grouping features?

Answer 15

Gestalt psychologists described principles such as proximity, similarity, common motion, good continuation, and closure.

Question 16

Define visual acuity..

Answer 16

Visual acuity is a measure of the finest details someone can distinguish.

Question 17

What does sensitivity to contrast measure?

Answer 17

Sensitivity to contrast is the ability to perceive different intensities of light.

Question 18

What is homonymous hemianopsia and what causes it?

Answer 18

Homonymous hemianopsia is a visual field loss occurring in the same part of both visual fields due to damage beyond the optic chiasm.

Question 20

What is a quadrantanopia?

Answer 20

Quadrantanopia is blindness for a specific quadrant of the visual field.

Question 21

How does the brain compensate for a visual field defect?

Answer 21

1. the brain can use previous knowledge to fill in missing information
2. eye movements to compensate for the missing area.

Question 22

Describe cortical blindness.

Answer 22

Cortical blindness occurs when V1 is completely destroyed, leading to the loss of the whole visual field. However, blindsight can occur where patients respond to stimuli in the damaged visual field without conscious vision of it.

Question 23

What is the phenomenon in Anton’s syndrome?

Answer 23

In Anton’s syndrome, visual anosognosia occurs where patients are cortically blind but believe they can see.

Question 28

Describe Simultanagnosia.

Answer 28

It is a defect in perceiving multiple objects simultaneously due to damage in the dorsal pathway.

Question 30

What is Topographical agnosia?

Answer 30

It’s when familiar buildings and landscapes aren’t recognized.

Question 31

Define Associative visual agnosia.

Answer 31

While a complete mental image exists, the association with knowledge about the object from memory is absent. Patients can copy a figure but can’t name or categorize it.

Question 32

What is Optic ataxia?

Answer 32

A disorder in hand coordination based on visual perception, often due to damage in the inferior parietal lobe and linked to the ‘where/how’ pathway.

Question 33

Describe Bálint’s syndrome.

Answer 33

It is a combination of optic ataxia, ocular apraxia, and simultanagnosia resulting from bilateral lesions in the posterior parietal lobe.

Question 34

What is Neglect?

Answer 34

It’s not a visual or visuoperceptual disorder but an attention disorder. A lesion in the parietal lobe, often on the right side, can lead to an unawareness of one side of the body and environment, typically the left.

Question 35

How is Neglect manifested?

Answer 35

The patient can see but does not consciously perceive information from the neglected side. It affects auditory and tactile information as well.

Answer 36

.

Question 37

How does Auditory Localization work?

Answer 37

We receive auditory input from 360 degrees. Location is determined based on differences in arrival times between the left and right ear and by analyzing the frequency of incoming sounds.

Question 39

locations of the What and Where auditory pathways.

Answer 39

“What”: auditory cortex–>temporal lobe
where: posterior parietal cortex

(precies omgekeerd aan visual where/what)

Question 41

What is Cortical Deafness

Answer 41

A result of damage to the temporal lobe in both hemispheres leading to hearing impairment.

Question 43

Define Tactile Disorders.

Answer 43

They relate to integrated touch, thermoception, and proprioception information. Brain damage can lead to disorders in these functions.

Question 46

Outline the journey of an odorant molecule during Smell Perception.

Answer 46

Activation by odorant molecules
Signal creation by olfactory receptors in the epithelium
Transmission to olfactory bulb
Relay to primary olfactory cortex
Connection to limbic areas like the thalamus and hippocampus, leading to emotional and memory associations.

Question 47

Match the following disorders with their descriptions:
1Ageusia
2Anosmia
3Phantosmia
4Gustatory agnosia
a. Inability to recognize tastes
b. Olfactory hallucinations
c. Loss of taste
d. Loss of smell

Answer 47

1-c, 2-d, 3-b, 4-a

Question 48

which statement(s) is/are true:

1 When two sensory events occur near each other in space and time, they probably belong together.
2Multisensory integration can occur even when one sense is damaged, like sight.
3Sensory events perceived at the same time likely belong together due to temporal alignment.

Answer 48

1,3

Question 50

1Ageusia
2Hypogeusia
3Dysgeusia
4Gustatory agnosia
5Anosmia
6Hyposmia
7Phantosmia
8Olfactory agnosia
a. Inability to recognize taste
b. Inability to recognize/identify smell
c. Loss of taste
d. Loss of smell
e. Reduced taste
f. Reduced smell
g. Olfactory hallucinations
h. Change of taste

Answer 50

1-c, 2-e, 3-h, 4-a, 5-d, 6-f, 7-g, 8-b

Question 51

Format: Which statement(s) is/are true?

1When two sensory events occur at the same location and time, they likely belong together due to spatial alignment.
2Temporal alignment suggests that sensory events perceived near the same time are connected.
3Damage to the insula always permits multisensory integration.

Answer 51

The first two are true. The last statement is false: damage to the insula can result in no integration of certain senses, like light and sound.

Question 52

What are the three main components of phonology in the domain of language, speech, and verbal communication?

Answer 52

Phonological word form: where one initial sound determines the meaning (e.g. fog vs dog).
Morphologythe form of words, distinguishing between singular and plural forms.
Syntax: structure of morphemes, words, and phrases to create well-formed sentences.

Question 53

What is the Universal grammar theory introduced by Chomsky?

Answer 53

Universal grammar is a theory that posits specific grammatical rules for languages are either activated or deactivated based on input. This innate system is present in every person for every language, guiding the order of subjects, objects, and verbs in a sentence.

Question 54

Format: Which statement(s) is/are true?

1 The Universal Grammar theory faced no opposition.
2 Large-scale longitudinal corpus analyses show that children’s linguistic structures become more intricate as they grow.
3 Telegram style is a unique linguistic phenomenon found only in adults without language disorders.

Answer 54

Only the second statement is true. The first is false: UG had opponents like child language acquisition and evolutionary cognitive sciences. The third is false: Telegram style is also found in speakers with aphasia.

Question 55

What are the primary linguistic levels that linguistic modalities (comprehension, production, reading, and writing) are divided into?

Answer 55

Semantics (meaning)
Phonology (sounds)
Morphology (word structure)
Syntax (sentence structure)
Additionally, the relationship between language expressions and specific situations is governed by pragmatics.

Question 56

What is the mental lexicon?

Answer 56

It’s a library in the mind, storing known words and their information.

Question 57

Define phonology.

Answer 57

It deals with sound units in language, emphasizing how they are realized and how they change the meaning of words when altered.

Question 58

What is semantics in linguistics?

Answer 58

It’s how words are associated with concepts, linking them to real-world characteristics.

Question 59

What is morphology?

Answer 59

It studies the smallest units with meaning in language, such as morphemes.

Question 60

What does syntax refer to?

Answer 60

It’s about using grammatical rules to form sentences, focusing on word categories and structure.

Question 61

Explain pragmatics in linguistics.

Answer 61

It’s the relationship between language expressions and specific contexts, including non-literal meanings.

Question 62

What are the three components of language production?

Answer 62

The conceptualizer, the formulator, and the articulators.

Question 63

What is the role of the conceptualizer in language production?

Answer 63

It processes non-linguistic concepts based on world knowledge.

Question 64

How does the formulator assist in language production?

Answer 64

It prepares grammatical and phonological information using the mental lexicon.

Question 65

What do articulators do in the speech process?

Answer 65

They produce internal speech, leading to pronounced words with rapid motor activity.

Question 67

Which hemisphere is more involved in core language aspects?

Answer 67

The left hemisphere. The right focuses on prosody and pragmatics.

Question 68

define of each type of aphasia the: characteristics: fluency (YES/NO), comprehension (YES/NO), repetition (YES/NO).

Answer 68

Question 69

1 Broca’s aphasia results in non-fluent, agrammatical language.
2 People with Wernicke’s aphasia have difficulty in pronunciation.
3 Conduction aphasia patients often try to correct their language mistakes.

Answer 69

1 is true.
2 is false: People with Broca’s aphasia have difficulty in pronunciation.
3 is true.

Question 70

What does the term dysarthria refer to?

Answer 70

Dysarthria is a disorder of the motor system, causing difficulty in pronunciation due to muscle weakness.

Question 71

What is the difference between speech apraxia and dysarthria?

Answer 71

Speech apraxia is a disorder in planning and organizing articulatory movements, while dysarthria results from muscle weakness affecting speech.

Question 72

In Transcortical aphasia: sensory/motor’s sensory form, how is the repetition of words affected?

Answer 72

In the sensory form of Transcortical aphasia: sensory/motor, repetition of words is intact, sometimes even to the extent that the patient repeats what has just been said (echolalia).

Question 73

Format: Which Statement(s) is/are True?

1 Anomic aphasia involves difficulties in finding words during both writing and speaking.
2 Anomic aphasia involves impaired comprehension of words.
3 Repetition and reading aloud in Anomic aphasia are always smooth and effortless.

Answer 73

1 is true.
2 is false: Word comprehension in Anomic aphasia is intact.
3 is false: Repetition and reading aloud can be challenging.

Question 74

What are the primary disorders associated with aphasia concerning articulation?

Answer 74

Answer: Aphasia is often accompanied by **Dysarthria **(a motor articulation disorder) and speech apraxia (an issue with planning and executing speech movements).

Question 75

Disorders and their definitions:

1Dyslexia/alexia
2 Agraphia
Definitions:
a. Reading is impaired.
b. Writing is impaired.

Answer 75

1-a, 2-b

Question 76

Format: Which Statement(s) is/are True?

1Surface dyslexia/agraphia implies the ability to read and write irregularly spelled words.
2 Regular written words are more often encountered in deep dyslexia/agraphia.

Answer 76

1 is false: Surface dyslexia/agraphia involves struggles with irregularly spelled words.
2 is true.

Question 77

What are the characteristics of Phonological dyslexia/agraphia?

Answer 77

Phonological dyslexia/agraphia, non-existent words cannot be read or written by the patient, and it becomes challenging to read or write new words.

Question 78

What is the primary impairment associated with Neglect dyslexia?

Answer 78

Neglect dyslexia is characterized by an impairment in identifying graphemes at the beginning or end of words.

Question 78

Describe the issue faced by individuals with Attentional dyslexia.

Answer 78

Individuals with Attentional dyslexia have difficulty naming individual letters, especially when they are combined with other letters.

Question 79

From a language processing model perspective, what does the model proposed by Young (1988) primarily illustrate?
a) Phonetic processing of language
b) The emotional response to language
c) Four modalities of language: auditory comprehension, written comprehension (reading), spoken production, and written production (writing)
d) The impact of environmental factors on language processing

Answer 79

c

Question 80

What does dynamic aphasia focus on and why is it crucial in the study of aphasia syndromes?

Answer 80

Dynamic aphasia emphasizes the importance of spontaneous speech, or how fluently a person speaks in casual settings. It is crucial because translating thoughts into articulated messages involves several linguistic levels.

Question 81

What pattern of difficulties is observed in patients with dynamic aphasia?

Answer 81

Patients with dynamic aphasia have difficulty initiating speech. However, they typically retain abilities in language comprehension, naming, and imitation.

Question 82

According to the Wernicke-Lichtheim model, what is the role of the inferior frontal gyrus (Broca’s area) in language?

Answer 82

The inferior frontal gyrus (Broca’s area) is involved in language production.

Question 83

Question: Based on recent research, why are the terms ‘Broca’s area’ and ‘Wernicke’s area’ considered outdated?

Answer 83

The terms ‘Broca’s area’ and ‘Wernicke’s area’ are considered outdated because newer research suggests a shift towards viewing the brain’s language functions in terms of well-defined anatomical structures, like gyri, rather than the one-on-one relationships these terms suggest.

Question 83

Format: Which statement(s) is/are true?

1Persistent language production disorders after a stroke are primarily predicted by lesions in the white matter tracts.
2Chronic aphasia is due to injuries in the grey matter itself.
3Electrocortical stimulation (DES) has played a significant role in enhancing our understanding of language and brain locations.

Answer 83

1 and 3 are true
2 is false: Chronic aphasia is due to injuries to specific areas such as the white matter tracts, not just the grey matter.

Question 85

Which statement(s) is/are true?

1A person’s performance on a neuropsychological test is heavily influenced by the motor system’s functionality.
2Motor disorders post-brain injury can skew test results and mask actual cognitive abilities.
3Sensory processes influence motor actions, and both depend on embodied cognition.

Answer 85

All statements (1, 2, and 3) are true.

Question 86

How do muscles usually work in pairs?

Answer 86

Muscles typically function in agonist-antagonist pairs.

Question 87

How does the spinal cord contribute to muscle activity?

Answer 87

Muscles receive signals from motor neurons in the ventral part of the spinal cord. These motor neurons get information from muscle spindles about the muscle’s contraction state and coordinate with other motor neurons in the spinal cord.

Question 88

Which muscles are most vulnerable to disturbances after a brain injury and why?

Answer 88

Distal muscles, like those in the hand and fingers, are more vulnerable because they’re controlled by the crossed lateral corticospinal projections originating from the contralateral primary motor cortex.

Question 89

Match the following terms with their descriptions:

1Muscle spindles
2Homunculus
3Distal muscles
4Proximal muscles
a. Muscles of the hand, fingers, and feet, vulnerable post brain injury
b. Contains a representation of the body in the primary motor cortex
c. Sensory receptors within muscles, informing contraction state
d. Muscles of the trunk, upper arms, and thighs

Answer 89

Answer Key:
1-c, 2-b, 3-a, 4-d

Question 90

What are the five subcortical brain structures that make up the basal ganglia?

Answer 90

The five structures are
the caudate nucleus,
putamen (together referred to as the striatum),
globus pallidus,
substantia nigra, and the
subthalamic nucleus.

Question 91

How does the striatum process information in the basal ganglia?

Answer 91

he striatum receives input from various motor cortical areas. This information is then sent to frontal cortical areas through both a direct and an indirect route, each having different effects on movement.

Question 92

Name 3 parts of the cerebellum that each have a specific function in movement.

Answer 92

1. vestibulocerebellum,
2. spinocerebellum,
3. neocerebellum,

Question 93

match 4 possible consequences of damage to the cerebellum with their description:
1. cerebellar ataxia
2. dysmetria
3. intentional tremor,
4. dysdiadochokinesia
a. (difficulty in making fast, alternating hand movements).
b.(incorrect timing of hand/eye movements),
c.tremor
d.(uncoordinated movement),

Answer 93

1d 2b 3c 4a

Question 94

Match the following parts of the cerebellum with their functions:

1Vestibulocerebellum
2Spinocerebellum
3Neocerebellum
a. Coordinates limbs and trunk muscles during locomotion
b. Adjusts movements based on head and eye position changes
c. Plans and executes movements by receiving info from the cortex

Answer 94

1-b, 2-a, 3-c

Question 95

Describe the difference between the direct and indirect routes in the basal ganglia.

Answer 95

The direct route has an activating effect on movement and is characterized by activation of the frontal cortical areas. In contrast,

the indirect route has an inhibitory effect on movement. Parkinson’s disease, for example, sees reduced activation of the direct route due to dopamine deficiency in the striatum, causing lack of movement. Conversely, in Huntington’s disease, activation in the indirect route is reduced, leading to excess involuntary movements.

Question 96

Define Mirror neurons and their significance.

Answer 96

exist in the premotor and posterior parietal cortex, active during both action and observation. They aid in learning, social cognition, and empathy.

Question 97

How do Forward models function in motor actions? What does it give an explanation for?

Answer 97

Forward models predict an action’s outcomes using an internal motor system model, explaining phenomena like reduced self-tickling sensation.

Question 98

Describe the importance of Representation of movement goals.

Answer 98

It integrates sensory and visual perception for effective interaction with the environment, with the ventro-dorsal pathway crucial for spatial perception.

Question 99

Differentiate between body image and body schema.

Answer 99

Body image is a conscious, stable representation

body schema is an unconscious, continuously updated model based on sensory data.

Question 100

what is the peripersonal space

Answer 100

It’s the space around the body, crucial for protective actions, maintaining social distance, and determining reachable objects.

Question 101

Define Apraxia.

Answer 101

Apraxia is the inability to perform specific actions due to sensory, motor, or cognitive deficits, affecting the comprehension, recognition, and implementation of the task.

Question 102

Which brain regions, when damaged, can result in apraxia?

Answer 102

The left parietal lobe, right parietal regions, temporal and frontal cortex, and even subcortical lesions of the white matter can result in apraxia.

Question 103

Differentiate between Ideational apraxia and Ideomotor apraxia.

Answer 103

Ideational apraxia involves a disorder in the conceptual representation of movements, impairing tool use and movement sequences. In contrast,

Ideomotor apraxia retains the representation of movements but affects their execution due to deficits in premotor and primary motor regions.

Question 104

which statement(s) is/are true?

1The functions of certain tools are unrecognizable to patients with Ideomotor apraxia.
2Apraxia only results from lesions in the left hemisphere.
3There’s a direct visual route in the Liepmann model converting visual stimulus directly into movement.

Answer 104

1 is false: Patients with Ideomotor apraxia can recognize the function but can’t use them correctly.
2 is false: Apraxia can also result from right hemisphere, temporal, frontal, and subcortical lesions.
3 is true.

Question 105

Pair the following terms with their explanations:

1Inferior parietal lesions
2Frontal lesions
3Dorso-dorsal pathway
4Ventral pathway
5Temporal lobe damage (connected to the ventral pathway)
a. Disruptions in distinguishing and recognizing gestures.
b. Disruptions in movement production.
c. Impairments in the imitation of meaningless gestures.
d. Affects the pantomime of object use, connecting the inferior parietal cortex to the ventral premotor cortex and pars opercularis.
e. Severe apraxia involving disrupted object use.

Answer 105

Answer Key:
1-a, 2-b, 3-c, 4-d, 5-e

Question 106

What is Optic ataxia, and what is its primary symptom?

Answer 106

Optic ataxia is the inability to make coordinated or coherent movements relative to what is being looked at. The main symptom is not being able to reach or point at an object in the peripheral visual field.

Question 107

What characterizes the Alien hand syndrome (AHS) and where can it occur after injury?

Answer 107

Alien hand syndrome (AHS) is characterized by involuntary, seemingly autonomous movements of the affected hand that go against the patient’s reported intention. It can occur after both left and right hemispheric injuries, especially if the corpus callosum is also involved.

Question 108

Pair the following terms with their explanations:

Frontal AHS
Posterior AHS
Grasping reflex in AHS
Mirror movements in AHS
a. Characterized by a sense of alienation, less complex movements, and self-stimulation of the affected side.
b. Movements where the two hands must perform the same action.
c. Result of injury to the medial side, characterized by the grasping reflex and compulsive tactile exploration.
d. The alien hand automatically grabs objects in the environment.

Answer 108

1-c, 2-a, 3-d, 4-b

Question 109

In which scenario will only the left hand be impaired in Alien hand syndrome?

Answer 109

The left hand will be impaired in Alien hand syndrome only if the corpus callosum is damaged.

Question 110

Werkgroep

Vision is one of the five major sensory systems. Name the other four:

Answer 110

Auditory (hearing)
Olfactory (smell)
Gustatory (taste)
Somatosensory (touch and body sensations)

Question 111

werkgroep

a. The primary and secondary cortical areas for vision are in the
………………………. lobe

Answer 111

Occipital

Question 112

werkgroep

The primary and secondary cortex for somatosensation are in the
………………………… lobe.

Answer 112

parietal lobe

Question 113

The primary and secondary auditory cortical areas for audiation are in the
………………………… lobe.

Answer 113

temporal

Question 114

. Why are these areas named ‘primary’ and ‘secondary’?

Answer 114

The terms “primary” and “secondary” in the context of sensory cortical areas refer to the hierarchy and sequence of processing within the brain:

Question 115

werkgroep

What is the common location of damage in people with prosopagnosia?

Answer 115

fusiform gyrus

Question 116

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Answer 116

Question 117

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Answer 117

Question 118

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Answer 118

Question 119

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