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Cross-cultural Psychology of Health & Illness (Leiden University 22-23) > Week 3 - Cross-Cultural Cognition > Flashcards

Week 3 - Cross-Cultural Cognition Flashcards

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1
Q

CULTURAL
DIMENSIONS THEORY: Hofstede (2001)

A

Individualism–collectivism
* How interdependent is a culture?

Uncertainty avoidance
* How do people deal with ambiguity?

Power distance
* How hierarchical is a culture?

Long-term/short-term orientation
* Connection with tradition, also economic orientation

Masculinity/femininity
* How distinct are gender roles? Distribution of classical male/female traits

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2
Q

CULTURAL VARIATION

A

Cultures = fluid and dynamic, changing
over time

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3
Q

ideas and norms don’t necessarily emerge to
address universal problems…

A

result from cultural learning

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4
Q

SOURCES OF
CULTURAL VARIATION

A

-Ecological and geographical differences
- Local ecologies (cultural values and norms)

Proximate causes vs. distal causes
Evoked culture vs. transmitted culture

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5
Q

PROXIMATE AND
DISTAL CAUSES

A

Proximate causes: Differences that have direct and
immediate effects

Distal causes: Early differences that lead to effects
over long periods of time

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6
Q

EVOKED AND
TRANSMITTED CULTURE

A

Evoked culture: “biologically encoded”; Specific environments evoke specific
responses from (all) people within that environment,
becoming part of a culture

Transmitted culture: Cultural information passed on or
learned via social transmission or modeling

–> Not always clearly separated!
Transmitted culture is arguably always involved in
maintaining cultural norms, even when evoked cultural
responses are also present

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7
Q

TRANSMISSION OF
CULTURAL INFORMATION:

A

Biological evolution vs Cultural evolution

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8
Q

Biological evolution: ideas need to be retained and passed on

A
  • Natural selection
  • Sexual selection

–> Sometimes conflicting! (e.g., peacocks males and their feather tales are easy to spot, not good for hiding)

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9
Q

Cultural evolution: Similarities with biological evolution

A
  • Ideas can be persistent (high survival rate)
  • Ideas can be more prone to being passed around
    (reproduced more)
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10
Q

Cultural evolution: differences from biological evolution

A
  • More copying errors in cultural ideas
  • Cultural ideas can be transmitted horizontally among
    peers, not only vertically across generations (ideas move faster than psychological traits)
  • Cultural ideas do not have to be adaptive
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11
Q

Information going viral: Memes

A

Agents of cultural transmission (Dawkins)
–> Shared jokes/context

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12
Q

COMMUNICABLE
IDEAS: In order to be easily shared, information might be especially…

A
  • useful or informative
  • elicit emotional response
  • simple to communicate
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13
Q

Ideas generally spread within social networks, leading to
clustering of attitudes: ???

A

Dynamical social impact theory (Norms develop among those who communicate regularly)

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14
Q

PERSISTING IDEAS: persist longer how?

A

Ideas that have a small number of counterintuitive elements
persist longer
- minimal
- religious narratives / myth/storytelling

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15
Q

CHANGING CULTURES: changing and evolving
in several ways…

A
  • Increasingly interconnected
  • Increasingly individualistic
  • People increasingly intelligent
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16
Q

CHANGING CULTURES: INCREASES IN
INTERCONNECTEDNESS

A
  • easier & cheaper transports and long-distance communication
  • create a global culture
  • countered by increased tribalism or modern populism
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17
Q

CHANGING CULTURES: Individualism vs Collectivism
(Cultures often studied on an Individualism/Collectivism (I/S)
dimension (cf Hofstede))

A
  • Individualism = individuals encouraged to consider
    themselves as distinct from others and prioritize own personal
    goals over collective goals
  • Collectivism = individuals encouraged to place more
    emphasis on goals of one’s collective or in-group
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18
Q

CHANGING CULTURES: INCREASES IN
INDIVIDUALISM

A

Visible when comparing younger and older Americans,
proposed reasons include
* More pressures of time and money
* Increased suburbanization
* More electronic entertainment
* Higher socioeconomic status
* More secular
* Decrease in rates of infectious diseases (!)

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19
Q

CHANGING CULTURES: INCREASE IN INDIVIDUALISM (in collectivistic society)

A

Also visible in traditionally collectivistic cultures, e.g. Japan
* Higher divorce rates
* Decreases in family size
* Placing higher value on independence in children

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20
Q

CHANGING CULTURES: INCREASES IN
INTELLIGENCE

A

Longitudinal data suggests that IQ scores rise between 5 and
25 points per generation
- dependent of intelligence test
- largest increase seen for “ravens matrices test” –> culture free and focused on problem-solving

21
Q

Proposed reasons for increased intelligence include:

A
  • Improved nutrition
  • More ppl receive education (higher degrees)
  • Pop-culture, increasingly more complicated (complex plots in movies and tv-shows)
22
Q

PERSISTENCE OF
CULTURE: Changes are usually slow, and some cultural qualities persist for far longer than their initial usefulness!

A
  • Persistence is an effect of pre-existing structure
  • Facilitated by pluralistic ignorance = tendency to collectively
    misinterpret the thoughts that underlie other people’s behavior
23
Q

Pluralistic ignorance (e.g., death-sentence)

A

pluralistic ignorance = tendency to collectively
misinterpret the thoughts that underlie other people’s behavio

24
Q

PERCEPTION AND COGNITION
Thought of as mostly universal functions! However, there are cross-cultural differences in the basic phenomena of:
sensation…
perception…
cognition…

A

sensation: Seeing, hearing, touching, smelling, tasting

perception: Perceptual organisation - How to structure & interpret incoming sensory information

cognition: Memory, attention, task switching, imagery, reasoning, etc

25
Q

SENSING VS PERCEIVING

A

Sensation:
* Vision/seeing
* Audition/hearing
* Haptic sense/touching
* Olfactory sense/smelling
* Gustatory sense/tasting
* (more: proprioception, pain/itch, temperature, balance…)

Perception: conscious experience

26
Q

ENCULTURATION IN PERCEPTION: previous exposure & predictability

A

Previous exposure: leads to changed processing of new
information –> increased sensitivity

Predictability: if known what to expect, infrequently perceived things become more interesting, but processed less successfully (e.g., faces, weather, colors. tastes, music, etc…)

27
Q

STATISTICAL LEARNING: (frequent, together, important)

A

what is Frequent: COMMON vs RARE

what goes Together: NORMAL vs SURPRISE

what is Important: SALIENT aspects of a stimulus are processed more efficiently

28
Q

BOTTOM-UP & TOP-DOWN

A

Top-Down Modulation: Internally-driven attention (interpretation of incoming information based on prior knowledge, experiences, and expectations.)

Bottom-Up Processing: Externally-driven attention (retrieval of sensory information from our external environment)

29
Q

Higher-order information, (bottom-up & Top-down)

A

= prior knowledge and experience, help to interpret patterns going beyond basic stimulus properties

30
Q

Different cultures lead to different ‘auditory environments’

A

Different rhythms (regular or irregular) & beats –> Rhythmic biases

31
Q

AUDITORY ENVIRONMENT: LANGUAGE

A
  • Syllable-timed: e.g., French & Spanish
  • Stress-timed: e.g., Dutch & English
  • Mora-timed: e.g., Japanese
32
Q

NORMAL PAIRWISE VARIABILITY INDEX: NPVI

A

nPVI: calculates the durational variability of successive vocalic duration

The higher the nPVI value, the larger the contrast of successive duration

(English composers are “better” than French)

33
Q

PERCEPTION AND THINKING STYLES

A
  • Analytic thinking (greek)
  • Holistic thinking (chinese)

Analytic and holistic thinking appear to be culturally variant,
potentially based on philosophical traditions (Cf. Greek vs Chinese)

34
Q

Analytic thinking involves (individualistic society)

A
  • Focus on objects and attributes
  • Objects perceived as independent from contexts
  • Taxonomic categorization
  • More prevalent in individualistic societies
35
Q

Holistic thinking involves (collectivistic society)

A
  • Attending to the relations among objects
  • Predicting an object’s behavior on the basis of those relationships
  • Thematic categorization
  • More prevalent in collectivistic societies
36
Q

ART: HORIZONS AND CONTEXT

A

Western art: horizontal view, one vocal point
Eastern art: “bird view” , more relations

37
Q

PORTRAITS: West vs East

A

Typical western portrait (left): bigger faces, less background
Typical Eastern portrait (right): more context

38
Q

CITY-SCAPES
When comparing the view from specific locations in American and Japanese towns, Japanese views are generally
more complex

A

–> Perceptual environments can induce specific patterns of
attention!

Thus Japanese notice “change-blindness” changes better

39
Q

ANALYTIC & HOLISTIC APPROACHES
Relationships between figure and ground (field), focal and contextual information

Field dependence: linking/integrating an object into its context,
difficulty to see separate elements

A

Holistic thinkers perceive a scene as an integrated whole
* More field dependence

Analytic thinkers are able to separate objects from each other
* Field independence

40
Q

FIELD DEPENDENCE IN THE LAB (the rod-and-frame task)

The line is:
A—perfectly vertical
B—a couple of degrees off vertical

A

The line is:
A—perfectly vertical
B—a couple of degrees off vertical

Right answer –> B

41
Q

FIELD DEPENDENCE IN THE LAB: Attending to foreground and background (fish)

American vs Japanese
(fish + original background; fish + no background; fish + novel background)

A

Americans: unaffected by background manipulation

Japanese: more errors with new background (not affected by
absent background)

42
Q

FOCAL ATTENTION: Attention operationalized as gaze direction: eye-tracking data

A

the more time the bigger difference in cultural groups but not within the group itself. Time matters for attention processing, but not in the long run.

43
Q

UNDERSTANDING BEHAVIOR OF OTHERS: Analytic thinkers

A

more likely to make dispositional attributions even when contextual/environmental constraints are made explicit, e.g., more related to the person then the context

44
Q

UNDERSTANDING BEHAVIOR OF OTHERS: Holistic thinkers

A

Holistic thinkers are more likely to pay attention to
contextual information and make situational attributions.
e.g., more related to the context then the person

45
Q

ACCEPTING CONTRADICTION:

A

Analytic thinking: traceable to Greek philosophical tradition,
heavy on formal logic
* Does not accept contradictions: A=B or A=Not B

Holistic thinking: traceable to Chinese philosophical tradition
(Confucianism), focus on continual change
* Everything is interconnected, moving between opposites

  • attitudes to the self: Holistic thinkers give more contradictory self-descriptions
  • future expectations: Analytic thinkers assume linear progressions, holistic thinkers expect change
46
Q

OTHER INFLUENCES ON THINKING: TALKING

A
  • Vocalizing thoughts helps Westerners but not Easterners
    –> Speech forces focus which facilitates analytic thinking but
    interferes with holistic thinking
47
Q

LANGUAGE & THOUGHT: All spoken communication contains both implicit (i.e. nonverbal) and explicit information.

A

High context cultures (East-Asian) = people highly connected with each other, much shared information guides behavior, less explicit information is needed for communication
–> harder time ignoring implicit information

Low context cultures (Western) = less shared information, more explicit information is necessary for communication

48
Q

LANGUAGE & THOUGHT: Linguistic relativity

A

Strong version = language determines thought:
without access to the right words, people cannot have certain
kinds of thoughts

Weak version = language influences thought:
having access to certain words influences the kinds of
thoughts that one has

49
Q

EFFECTS OF LANGUAGE ON PERCEPTION AND COGNITION

A
  • Color perception
  • Odor perception
  • Temporal perception
  • Spatial perception
  • Perception of agency
  • Numerical cognition & math

Cross-cultural Psychology of Health & Illness (Leiden University 22-23) (5 decks)

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