Brainscape's Knowledge GenomeTM

Browse over 1 million classes created by top students, professors, publishers, and experts.


See full index

Medical Studies 1 > Week 2 Cardiovascular > Flashcards

Week 2 Cardiovascular Flashcards

You may prefer our related Brainscape-certified flashcards:
USMLE® Step 1 flashcards
1
Q

define stable coronary artery disease

A

a pathological process characterised by atherosclerotic plaque accumulation in the epicardial arteries, whether obstructive or non obstructive

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
2
Q

list the symptoms of angina

A

chest pain
radiating pain to left jaw
dyspnoea
sweating
fatigue
syncope
anxiety

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
3
Q

explain chest pain as a symptom of angina

A

reduced blood flow to the heart muscle due to coronary artery stenosis, leading to ischemia

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
4
Q

explain radiating pain to left jaw as a symptom of angina

A

referred pain due to the convergence of sensory nerve fibres in the spinal chord (commonly seen in myocardial ischemia)

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
5
Q

explain dyspnoea as a symptom of angina

A

decreased oxygen supply to the heart results in inadequate pumping capacity, reducing oxygen delivery to body tissues, including the lungs

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
6
Q

explain sweating as a symptom of angina

A

the body’s sympathetic response to ischemia often accompanied by an adrenaline release

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
7
Q

explain fatigue as a symptom of angina

A

reduced oxygen delivery to the heart muscle, leading to reduced CO and loss of consciousness

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
8
Q

explain syncope as a symptom of angina

A

severe ischemia can cause a sudden drop in CO, leading to loss of consciousness

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
9
Q

explain anxiety as a symptom of angina

A

psychological and physiological reaction to chest pain and fear of cardiac events

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
10
Q

Describe how a mismatch between oxygen supply and demand arises

A

-when an obstruction in the coronary artery occurs, this prevents perfusion, creating a supply demand mismatch, heart can’t receive enough oxygen, leading to ischemia and possible angina
-mild to moderate stenosis due to atherosclerosis is clinically inconsequential
-fixed vessel narrowing over a prolonged period of time can lead to pressure drop and limited vessel flow

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
11
Q

what factors impact the haemodynamic significance of stenotic lesions

A

-extent of stenosis
-degree of compensatory vasodilation
-myocardial oxygen demand

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
12
Q

describe how the extent of stenosis can impact stenotic lesions

A

greater stenosis, means greater narrowing of coronary artery and reduced blood flow to the heart

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
13
Q

describe how the degree of compensatory vasodilation can impact stenotic lesions

A

reflects the ability of the heart to self-regulate blood flow by widening smaller vessels, compensating for reduced flow due to stenosis

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
14
Q

describe how myocardial oxygen demand impacts stenotic lesions

A

determines the stress placed on the heart, with increased demand potentially exacerbating the impact of coronary artery stenosis (by increasing mismatch)

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
15
Q

describe the process of anaerobic metabolism in cardiac myocytes during ishcemia and how this process can lead to the accumulation of metabolic by-products and lead to dyspnoea

A

-myocardial ischemia causes cardiomyocytes to with from oxygen dependent (aerobic) to oxygen-absent (anaerobic) metabolism
-anaerobic metabolism produces more lactic acid and lowers cellular pH, impairing cardiomyocytes function
-damaged cardiomyocytes impair myocardial relaxation and cause decreased left ventricular contractility and cardiac output
-blood backs up into LV and LA and pulmonary vessels
-increased pulmonary capillary pressures pushed fluid into alveoli
-decreased gas exchange (dyspnoea)

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
16
Q

describe how myocardial ischemia can lead to stimulation of pain pathways

A

-myocardial ischemia causes cardiomyocytes to with from oxygen dependent (aerobic) to oxygen-absent (anaerobic) metabolism
-anaerobic metabolism produces metabolites that stimulates cardiac spinal afferent nerves
-myocardial visceral afferent and somatic sensory nerve fibres mix and enter spinal cord via T1-T4 nerve roots
-brain interprets increased nerve signalling as pain coming from skin T1-T4 dermatomes (referred pain)

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
17
Q

cardiac chest pain is usually related to which dermatomes

A

C3 to T5

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
18
Q

C3-C4 dermatome is relevant to

A

neck and upper shoulder pain

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
19
Q

C5-T1 dermatome is relevant to

A

upper chest, shoulder and back pain

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
20
Q

what is acute coronary syndrome

A

used to describe suspicion or confirmation of acute MI

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
21
Q

what are the main types of acute coronary syndrome

A

-ST-elevation myocardial infarction (STEMI)
-non-St-elevation MI
-Unstable angina

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
22
Q

describe how spontaneous coronary artery dissection leads to acute coronary syndrome

A

sudden tearing of the layers in a coronary artery wall, often leading to a blockage

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
23
Q

describe how coronary artery spasm can lead to acute coronary syndrome

A

temporary constriction of a coronary artery, restricting blood flow to the heart

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
24
Q

describe how coronary microvascular dysfunction can lead to acute coronary syndrome

A

impaired function of the small blood vessels in the heart, affecting blood supply to the heart muscle

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
25
Q

describe how MI with non obstructed coronary arteries can lead to acute coronary syndrome

A

a heart attack (MI) that occurs with no visible blockages in the major coronary arteries

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
26
Q

describe how atherosclerosis can lead to acute coronary syndrome

A

progressive build up of plaque in the arteries, narrowing blood vessels and reducing blood flow

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
27
Q

what is a STEMI

A

ST-elevated myocardial infarction; severe heart attack with ST segment elevation on the ECG, indicating complete coronary artery blockage

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
28
Q

what is an NSTEMI

A

non-ST elevated myocardial infarction, partial heart attack with no ST segment elevation, indicating partial coronary artery blockage

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
29
Q

what is stable angina

A

chest pain or discomfort during physical exertion. typically relieved by rest or medication

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
30
Q

what is unstable angina

A

chest pain or discomfort caused by reduced blood flow to the heart, often a precursor to a heart attack (MI)

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
31
Q

what is a patient history used to diagnose in terms of coronary conditions

A

used to diagnose stable angina

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
32
Q

what is serum troponin used to diagnose in terms of coronary conditions

A

is used to diagnose unstable angina (non exertional pain without marked elevation or troponin)
serum troponin elevation indicates a STEMI or NSTEMI

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
33
Q

what is ECG used to diagnose in terms of coronary conditions

A

Is used to distinguish between STEMI (ST elevation) and NSTEMI (ST depression/T wave inversion)

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
34
Q

PLOT RADIO for ACS

A

crushing pain
radiating to left shoulder/jaw
onset at rest/exertion
not exacerbated

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
35
Q

PLOT RADIO for stable angina

A

crushing pain
radiating to left shoulder/jaw
onset at exertion
not exacerbated

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
36
Q

PLOT RADIO for aortic dissection

A

tearing pain
radiating to back/shoulder
onset at rest/exertion
not exacerbated

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
37
Q

PLOT RADIO for pericarditis

A

sharp pain
nil radiation
onset at rest/exertion
exacerbated by deep breathing

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
38
Q

PLOT RADIO for Pulmonary embolism

A

pleuritic pain
radiating to back/shoulder
onset at rest/exertion
exacerbated by inspiration

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
39
Q

PLOT RADIO for pneumothorax

A

pleuritic pain
nil radiation
onset at rest/exertion
exacerbated by inspiration

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
40
Q

PLOT RADIO for pneumonia

A

pleuritic pain
radiates to back/shoulder
onset at rest/exertion
exacerbated by deep breathing

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
41
Q

PLOT RADIO for GORD

A

burning pain
radiating up oesophagus
onset at rest/exertion
exacerbated supine or eating

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
42
Q

how does claudication occur in CVD

A

-atherosclerotic plaques in the peripheral arteries which causes stenosis and reduced blood flow to the muscle during exercise (increased oxygen demand)
-the disruption in oxygen supply leads to ischemia
-lactic acid produced
-leading to pain
*intermittent nature refers to temporary relief when at rest

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
43
Q

identify the ways that we can investigate a suspected acute coronary syndrome

A

ECG
serum troponin
Angiography

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
44
Q

describe ECG use as investigation for ACS

A

device that measures electrical activity of the heart, can be used to identify abnormal activity (STEMI, NSTEMI)

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
45
Q

describe serum troponin as investigation for ACS

A

cardiac enzyme that is over produced during myocardial damage, indicative of MI

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
46
Q

Describe angiography as investigation for ACS

A

imaging modality that enables visualisation of blood vessels, can allow for observation of occlusions

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
47
Q

Explain the importance of early intervention in management of acute coronary syndrome

A

-time is directly related to the extent of MI, the earlier intervention the better the outcomes/survival rate

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
48
Q

what are the interventions for ACS

A

thrombolysis and PCI/angioplasty

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
49
Q

Describe the use of PCI/angioplasty

A

Percutaneous coronary intervention; a catheter with a deflated balloon at its tip is inserted into narrowed artery, balloon is inflated to compress the plaque and widen the vessel, stent is often placed to decrease risk of re-narrowing

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
50
Q

describe the use of thrombolytics

A

-medical treatment that involves the administration of medication (thrombolytic agents) to dissolve blood clots within the body
-particularly used in STEMI

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
51
Q

which leads correspond to the lateral surface of the heart

A

I, aVL, V5, V6

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
52
Q

which leads correspond to the inferior surface of the heart

A

II,III,aVF

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
53
Q

which leads correspond to the anterior surface of the heart

A

V3,V4

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
54
Q

which leads correspond to the septal surface of the heart

A

V1,V2

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
55
Q

ECG findings of unstable angina

A

ST segment depression, T wave inversion

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
56
Q

ECG findings for NSTEMI

A

ST segment depression, T wave inversion

57
Q

ECG findings for STEMI

A

ST segment elevation

58
Q

how do troponin levels change for various ACS

A

unstable angina has normal troponin
NSTEMI and STEMi can have a rise/fall in troponin

59
Q

Whats a TIMI score

A

tool used to assess the risk of adverse outcomes in patients with UA or (NSTEMI) in the next 14 days

60
Q

list the criteria in TIMI score

America

A

age
risk factors
ASA (aspirin)
prior stenosis
angina
ST-depression
cardiac markers
(each worth one point)

61
Q

how is age assessed in TIMI

A

individuals over the age of 65 are at high risk

62
Q

how are risk factors assessed for TIMI

A

presence of at least three additional risk factors for CAD (HTN,diabetes,smoking,hyperlipidaemia,hypercholesterolaemia,FHx,obesity)

63
Q

how is ASA use assessed in TIMI

A

use of aspirin in last seven days

64
Q

how is prior stenosis assessed in TIMI

A

checking for the presence of severe angina in last 24 hours

65
Q

how is ST depression assessed in TIMI

A

presence of ST segment deviation on ECG

66
Q

how are cardiac markers assessed in TIMI

A

checking for elevated levels of cardiac markers (troponin)

67
Q

describe the primary management of an ACS

A

-admit to hospital
-12 lead ECG (diagnose STEMI vs NSTEMI/UA)
-reperfusion (<90m means angioplasty, <30m means thrombolytics)
-administer MONA
-echocardiogram, chest x ray, cardiac enzyme test
-discharge

68
Q

list the secondary management of ACS

A

dual anti platelet therapy
statins
ACE inhibitors
Beta-blockers
lifestyle changes
cardiologist referral

TASS (thrombolytics, asprin, stool softeners and sedatives)

69
Q

how many MI’s are repeat events

A

30%

70
Q

describe dual anti-platelet therapy for secondary ACS management

A

medical treatment involving the use of two antiplatelet medications, administer for at least 12 months post MI

71
Q

describe statins use for secondary ACS management

A

drug used to lower cholesterol, stabilise plaque and reduce inflammation, administered post MI irrespective of initial baseline cholesterol

72
Q

describe ACE inhibitor use for secondary ACS management

A

anti-hypertensive agents that reduce BP post MI

73
Q

describe beta blocker use for secondary ACS management

A

negative inotropic effect, reduces workload on heart post MI

74
Q

describe lifestyle change implementation for secondary ACS management

A

smoking and alcohol cessation
healthy diets
exercise

75
Q

describe cardiologist referral for secondary ACS management

A

consistent monitoring of symptoms, bloods and lipids over time

76
Q

whats MONA

A

morphine, oxygen, nitroglycerin, aspirin

77
Q

whats TASS

A

thrombolytics, anticoagulants, stool softeners, sedatives

78
Q

location of the precordial leads

A

V1 Fourth intercostal space, right of sternum

V2 Fourth intercostal space, left of sternum

V3 Halfway between V2 and V4

V4 Fifth intercostal space, midclavicular line

V5 Fifth intercostal space, anterior axillary line

V6 Fifth intercostal space, midaxillary line

*all on left expect V1

79
Q

how many types of myocardial infarction is there

A

5 types

SIDPC

sudden/imbalance/death/PCI/CABG

80
Q

describe type one MI

A

Mi due to plaque disruption, fissure, erosion, rupture, dissection

81
Q

describe type two MI

A

Mi due to oxygen supply/demand mismatch; respiratory failure, emboli

82
Q

describe type three Mi

A

ischemia without biomarkers available, sudden cardiac death

83
Q

describe type four Mi

A

associated with PCI; during operation or stent thrombosis

84
Q

describe type five MI

A

myocardial infarction associated with cardiac surgery (CABG)

85
Q

list the non atherosclerotic conditions that can cause MI

A

artery dissection
coronary artery spasm
myocarditis
embolism

86
Q

describe artery dissection

A

tear in the coronary artery wall leading to reduced blood flow to the heart

87
Q

describe coronary artery spasm

A

sudden, temporary constriction of a coronary artery, reducing blood flow

88
Q

describe myocarditis

A

inflammation of the heart muscle, which can lead to MI

89
Q

describe embolism

A

blockage of a coronary artery by a non-atherosclerotic embolus, often originating from an external source

90
Q

list the causes of type 2 MI

A

anaemia
coronary artery spasm
hypotension
hypoxia

91
Q

how does anaemia lead to MI

A

a low red blood cell count can reduce the oxygen carrying capacity of the blood (lowered Hb levels), leading to ischaemia and possible MI

92
Q

how does coronary artery spasm lead to MI

A

sudden temporary vasoconstriction of a CA, reducing blood flow to the heart

93
Q

how does hypotension lead to MI

A

low BP can result in inadequate blood flow to the coronary arteries, causing oxygen deprivation to the heart

94
Q

how does hypoxia lead to MI

A

insufficient oxygen in the blood, often due to respiratory problems or lung disease, can lead to oxygen deprivation to the heart

95
Q

list the causes of coronary artery spasm

A

smoking, drugs and endothelial dysfunction

96
Q

symptoms of coronary artery spasm

A

chest pain
dyspnoea
tachycardia
palpitations
syncope
jaw/shoulder pain

97
Q

list modifiable risk factors for atherosclerosis

A

smoking, physical inactivity, diet

98
Q

how is smoking linked to atherosclerosis

A

tobacco use damages blood vessels and promotes inflammation, accelerating atherosclerosis formation

99
Q

how is physical inactivity linked to the atherosclerosis

A

a sedentary lifestyle can increase the risk of atherosclerosis due to increased weight gain and reduced cardiovascular fitness

100
Q

how is diet linked to atherosclerosis

A

poor dietary choices high in saturated fats can contribute to plaque build up in arteries

101
Q

list the non modifiable risk factors for atherosclerosis

A

age
family history
biological sex

102
Q

how is age linked to atherosclerosis

A

atherosclerosis risk increases with age as arterial damage accumulates over time

103
Q

how is family history linked to atherosclerosis

A

family history of atherosclerosis and related conditions can increase susceptibility

104
Q

how is biological sex linked to atherosclerosis

A

men tend to have higher risk of atherosclerosis compared to premenopausal women; however, the risk even outs post menopause

105
Q

Describe the role of hyperlipidaemia and hyopercholesterolaemia in the development of atherosclerosis

A

-when LDL’s are high, they can infiltrate artery walls
-LDL’s become oxidised–>inflammation
-WBC’s recruited, which phagocytose LDL’s–>foam cells
-foam cells contribute to atherosclerotic plaques
-as plaques grow–>harden and narrow arteries
-stenosis restricts blood flow

106
Q

Outline how fibre intake reduces coronary heart disease risk

A

-GI action: soluble fibre such as beta-glucans and pectin, bind to cholesterol in the digestive tract and help eliminate it from the body, lowering LDL cholesterol
-Sugar absorption:fibre slows down the absorption off sugar, promoting stable blood sugar levels and reducing diabetic risk

107
Q

how do plant sterols and stanols work

A

Plant sterols and stanols compete with cholesterol for absorption in the intestines.
They reduce the amount of cholesterol absorbed into the bloodstream.

108
Q

list the benefits of plant sterols and stanols

A

reduced LDL levels
no side effects
convenient

109
Q

describe reduced LDL levels as a benefit of plant sterols and stanols

A

-primary benefit, consuming foods with these compounds can significantly lower LDL levels

110
Q

describe no side effects as a benefit of plant sterols and stanols

A

-unlike cholesterol lowering medications, plant sterols and stanols are generally-well tolerated and have no significant risks

111
Q

describe convenience as a benefit of plant sterols and stanols

A

fortified foods, such as markantes, spreads and certain dairy products provide a convenient way to incorporate plant sterols and stanols into daily diet without supplements

112
Q

Outline the links between dietary sodium, salt and hypertension

A

consuming high levels of dietary sodium can lead to increased BP as sodium attract water within the nephron, causing the body to retain more fluid which increases fluid retention

113
Q

Outline DASH diet

A

-Fruits and vegetables which have essential nutrients + lower BP
-Whole grains (brown rice, oats) which provide sustained energy and additional fibre to diet

114
Q

Outline mediterranean diet

A

-plant based foods:rich in fruits, veg,whole grain, legumes which provide essential vitamins, minerals, fibres and antioxidants
-healthy fats: olive oil (high in monounsaturated fats) and fatty fish (omega acids) aid heart health
-moderate dairy (yoghurt and cheese) provide source of calcium and protein with less fat

115
Q

Outline Australian dietary guidelines

A

emphasize the importance of a balanced diet that includes a variety of nutritious foods, while limiting unhealthy fats, added sugars, and salt. They also highlight the importance of physical activity, breastfeeding, and safe food practices.

116
Q

what is peripheral arterial disease

A

atherosclerotic affection of the peripheral arterial tree

117
Q

what are the signs/symptoms of peripheral arterial disease

A

claudication
HTN
arcus cornealis
tar staining

118
Q

identify the pathology of asymptomatic PAD

A

atherosclerotic plaque–>arterial stenosis–> collateral blood supply–> asymptomatic PAD

119
Q

identify the pathology of symptomatic PAD

A

atherosclerotic plaque–>arterial stenosis–>reduced peripheral perfusion–>peripheral arterial ischemia–>claudication and other symptoms

120
Q

what is cerebrovascular atherosclerosis

A

atherosclerosis of the arteries that supply the brain

121
Q

symptoms and signs of cerebrovascular atherosclerosis

A

unilateral weakness
confusion
unilateral vision loss
hemi-negligence
dysphasia
dizziness/syncope

122
Q

explain the mechanism of production of calf pain during walking

A

atherosclerotic plaque formation–>arterial stenosis–>collateral blood supply–>further stenosis–>reduced peripheral perfusion (increased O2 demand)–>insufficient person–>ischemia–>build up of metabolites–>intermittent claudication

123
Q

List the pharmacological options for PAD/cerebrovascular atherosclerosis

A

Dual antiplatelet therapy
Statin therapy
ACE inhibitor

124
Q

how does dual anti platelet therapy work for PAD/cerebrovascular atherosclerosis

A

reduces the risk of blood clot formation in narrowed arteries, important in preventing thrombotic complications

125
Q

how does stain therapy work for PAD/cerebrovascular atherosclerosis

A

lowers LDL cholesterol levels, managing a key risk factor for atherosclerotic progression in PAD

126
Q

how does ACE inhibitor work for PAD/cerebrovascular atherosclerosis

A

helps control BP and reduces the risk of cardiovascular complications in patients with PAD

127
Q

list the non pharmacological options for PAD/cerebrovascular atherosclerosis treatment

A

smoking cessation
dietary modifications
regular exercise

128
Q

how does smoking cessation aid PAD/cerebrovascular atherosclerosis

A

vital for PAD management, quitting smoking reduces the risk of disease progression and improves blood flow by eliminating a major contributor to arterial damage

129
Q

how does dietary modification aid PAD/cerebrovascular atherosclerosis

A

a heart-healthy diet lowers cholesterol and blood pressure, reducing the risk of PAD complications and helps maintain overall vascular health

130
Q

how does regular exercise aid PAD/cerebrovascular atherosclerosis

A

chances walking distance and alleviated claudication symptoms by improving muscle oxygenation, overall CV health and arterial function

131
Q

ECG for UA

A

-can be normal
-can have ST depression
-can have T wave inversion

132
Q

ECG for NSTEMI

A

-has ST depression
-can have T wave inversion

133
Q

ECG for STEMI

A

-St elevation
-can have T wave inversion

134
Q

what leads do you look at for ECG axis assessment

A

lead 1 and Lead aVF

135
Q

positive lead 1 and positive lead aVF =

A

normal axis

136
Q

positive lead 1 and negative lead aVF =

A

left axis deviation

137
Q

negative lead 1 and positive lead aVF =

A

right axis deviation

138
Q

negative lead 1 and negative lead aVF =

A

extreme axis

Medical Studies 1 (15 decks)

Brainscape helps you reach your goals faster, through stronger study habits.
© 2024 Bold Learning Solutions. Terms and Conditions