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PSYC133: Biopsychology > Week 2-Brain cells > Flashcards

Week 2-Brain cells Flashcards

1
Q

How can neurons be classified?

A

Via their morphology (structure) + the number of neuronal processes (bits sticking out from the cell)

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2
Q

What do the neuronal processes refer to?

A

either an axon or a dendrite feeding an electrical impulse to the soma (cell body)

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3
Q

What are the 4 principle parts of a neuron?

A

1.dendrites
2.soma (cell body)
3.axons
4.terminal buttons

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4
Q

Define unipolar neurons

A

one process e.g., action potentials passing through it (found in invertebrates)
bipolar=2
multipolar=2+

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5
Q

How can you classify multipolar neurons? (with examples)

A

based off the length of their axons
Examples:
1.Golgi l neurons=long axons e.g., motor neurons (need to communicate over long distances)
2.Golgi ll neurons=shorter axons to project locally e.g., interneurons

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6
Q

What did Golgi do?

A

created a staining technique to see neurons

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7
Q

What are the 3 main purposes of neurons?

A

1.Sensation: to gather and send info from the senses e.g., touch (SENSORY INPUT)
2.Integration: processes all info gathered to take action (decides whether to take action and what action)
3.Action: send appropriate signals to effectors (MOTOR OUTPUT)
■Muscles (cardiac, smooth, and skeletal)
■Glands (e.g., blushing, sweating, etc.)

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8
Q

What is function classification based on?

A

whether messages convey towards (sensory neurons), within (interneurons) or away (motor neurons) from the CNS

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9
Q

What are some facts about vision or pain sensory neurons?

A

-sensory has 2 morphology types (could be bipolar or unipolar)

-uses a variety of complex cells in the visual sensory neurons as visual info complex to interpret

-pain sensory neurones interpret pain through proteins and chemical receptors

–Contain receptors
–Translates receptor codes to neural codes
–Transmit information to CNS

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10
Q

Neuron classification Function: Define Afferent Neurons

A

carries info from the body and the outside world into the CNS e.g., sensory neurons (think ‘Affect’)

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11
Q

Neuron classification Function: Define Interneurons

A

connects and integrates neurons within the CNS (relay, projection, local)

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12
Q

Neuron classification Function: Define Efferent Neurons

A

carries commands from the CNS to muscles and organs e.g., motor neurons (think ‘Effect’)

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13
Q

Give an example of a sensation process

A

signalling danger through pain by going to the spine (reflexes) + the brain (either fearful withdrawal or more considered action)

-Descartes 1662 one of the first few people/documents to suggest pain was generated by the brain

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14
Q

What aspects does integration combine?

A

sensory, emotional and cognitive (e.g., what is learnt/action) with spinal cord or brain integration

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15
Q

State 12 areas of the brain which can detect pain regardless of the aspect

A

Affective:
1.Anterior cingulate cortex
2.Insula
3.Nucleus Accumbens
4.Amygdala
5.Parabrachial nucleus
Inferential: 6.Hippocampus
Cognitive: 7.Prefrontal cortex
Sensory-discriminative: 8.Somatosensory cortex
Descending modulation:
9.Periaqueductal gray
10.Rostral ventromedial medulla
Motivational:
11.Thalamus
12.Ventral tegmental area

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16
Q

Give an example of an action process

A

Withdrawal e.g., touching a hot object

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17
Q

True or false: the withdrawal reflex is 60ms

A

FALSE it’s actually 50ms

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18
Q

What specific neurons respond to pain?

A

1.Interneuron= Golgi ll Multipolar
2.Afferent neuron= pseudo-unipolar
3.Efferent neuron= Golgi l Multipolar

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19
Q

Eukaryotic cells: What’s the function of the nucleus?

A

-the control center of the cell
-contains DNA (dictates what cells will do and how) and genetic material
-contains nucleolus (where ribosomes are made)

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20
Q

Eukaryotic cells: What’s the function of the ribosomes?

A

site of protein synthesis

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21
Q

Eukaryotic cells: What’s the cytoplasm?

A

a jelly-like substance

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22
Q

Eukaryotic cells: What’s the function of the rough endoplasmic reticulum?

A

-has ribosomes attached to it
-transports proteins from the membrane via vesicles

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23
Q

Eukaryotic cells: What’s the function of the smooth endoplasmic reticulum?

A

-DOESN’T have ribosomes attached to it

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24
Q

Eukaryotic cells: What’s the function of the Golgi Apparatus/Body?

A

-receives vesicles
-customises proteins into forms cells can use by folding them into usable shapes OR adding other materials onto them e.g., lipids, carbohydrates

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25
Q

Eukaryotic cells: What’s the function of lysosomes?

A

-takes in damaged or worn out cell parts
-filled with enzymes that break down this cell debris

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26
Q

Eukaryotic cells: What’s the function of the mitochondria?

A

ATP production for cell energy (cells needing more energy=more mitochondria)

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27
Q

Eukaryotic cells: What’s the function of microtubules?

A

thin hollow tubes in the cytoskeleton

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28
Q

Eukaryotic cells: What’s the function of the cell membrane?

A

separates the inside of the cell from its environment

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29
Q

What do neurons look like at rest?

A

-70mV charge if microelectrodes placed inside the cell (compared to outside)

-neuron is polarised and this is the resting membrane potential

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30
Q

What are some features of the resting membrane potential?

A

-has an ionic basis
-the membrane controls the environment within and around the neuron
-selectively permeable membrane
-controls polarisation (controls difference in electrical charge between the inside/outside of neuron)

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31
Q

What is the membrane potential a result of?

A

a balance between 2 opposing forces (and membrane proteins)

32
Q

What’s diffusion?

A

when molecules distribute themselves evenly through the medium in which they’re dissolved i.e., follows a conc. gradient (high to low)

33
Q

What’s electrostatic pressure?

A

the force exerted by the attraction or repulsion between charged molecules (+ ions attracted to - ions and vice versa)

34
Q

How does the membrane react to a A- (protein)?

A

-membrane is impermeable to it
-negative charge provides electrostatic pressure to other ions (Na+/K+/Cl-)
-protein impermeable due to charge and large size so accumulates inside the cell (inside negative initially) =electrostatic pressure created

35
Q

Where does K+ go in the membrane?

A

-Diffusion forces K+ out of the cell
-Electrostatic pressure forces K+ into the cell (attracted to -)
-K+ effectively remain where they are (intracellular) BUT some leak out

36
Q

Where does Cl- go in the membrane?

A

-Diffusion forces Cl- into the cell
-Electrostatic pressure forces Cl- out of the cell (attracted to +)
-Cl- effectively remains where they are (mostly extracellular)

37
Q

Where does Na+ go in the membrane?

A

-Diffusion forces inside cell
-Electrostatic pressure attracts inside the cell
-Some ions manage to move into the cell

38
Q

What’s the lipid bilayer in the membrane?

A

-A barrier providing cell integrity
-Provides electrical properties of the neuron
-approx 5 nano-metres thick

39
Q

What are phospholipids in the membrane?

A

-hydrophilic as it has a charge to it (charged particles tend to dissolve easily)
-hydrophobic tail contains hydrocarbons (fatty which don’t dissolve well) SAME FOR LIPID BILAYER
-Provides electrical properties of the neuron

40
Q

Membrane properties: What’s permeability?

A

-it’s selective due to membrane properties
■ Important terms:
– …phylic (loving/attracted to)
– …phobic (repulsed by)
– Hydrophylic
– Hydrophobic
– Lipophylic

41
Q

What 2 molecule types determine the selectivity of the permeability of the membrane?

A

1.Proteins e.g., transport
2.Cholesterol e.g., rigidity

42
Q

Name 4 protein structures in the membrane

A

1.Transmembrane
2.Integral
3.Inner membrane
4.Surface

43
Q

What’s the structure and function of the Transmembrane?

A

S-Channels with pores
F: Important for transport (can be ion pumps, channels and carriers)

44
Q

What’s the structure and function of the Integral?

A

S-Spans the membrane but has no pores
F: Receptors that cause chemical change inside

45
Q

What’s the structure and function of the Inner Membrane?

A

S-Internal surface of the membrane
F: To attach the cytoskeleton (internal cell structure) to the membrane

46
Q

What’s the structure and function of the Surface?

A

S-External surface of the membrane
F: Attaches cells to an extracellular matrix, providing signalling to other cells

47
Q

Hoes does the Sodium-Potassium Pump provide balance, despite diffusion and electrostatic pressure pushing Na+ into the cell?

A

-It uses energy by moving ions AGAINST their conc./electrical gradient
-Energy is in form of ATP
-It’s critical for neuronal communication

48
Q

What are glial cells?

A

-Originates from Greek word glue
-Relevant to health and disease e.g., cancer and alzheimers
-Communicates chemically e.g., Ca+ to coordinate activity

49
Q

What happens if we don’t have glial cells?

A

Neurons fail to function properly:
–Neurons removed from rodents= forms very few synapses + produces very little synaptic activity
–BUT when surrounded by glial cells (astrocytes) synaptic activity increases ten-fold

50
Q

What are 3 ways glial cells support neurons?: Mobility

A

-Supports neuron migration during development by providing scaffolding (i.e., structural support)
-Supports the communication of info between neurons (action potentials)

51
Q

What are 3 ways glial cells support neurons?: Physical support

A

-Forms a cellular matrix to hold neural circuits together
-Provides them with nutrition

52
Q

What are 3 ways glial cells support neurons?: Cleaning

A

-Clears waste
-Contributes to “pruning” unnecessary synapses

53
Q

State the 5 main types of glial cells

A

1.Astrocyte
2.Oligodendrocyte
3.Schwann cells
4.Microglia
5.NG2 cells

54
Q

What are astrocytes?

A

-roughly 1/2 of all Glia
-some estimates: there are more astrocytes than neurons in humans (this is controversial however)

55
Q

What did Nedergaard, Ransom and Goldman (2003) find about astrocytes in the cerebral cortex?

A

astrocytes:per neuron ratio increases as behavioural complexity increases
Examples:
-1 astrocyte per neuron= leech,frog,mouse and rat
-more astrocytes>neurons= cats and humans

56
Q

True or false: Einstein was found to have higher than typical levels of astrocytes

A

True! whether it’s important for intelligence is uncertain currently

57
Q

What’s the morphology of astrocytes?

A

-‘Astro’ is Greek for stars
-9 different types identified so far
-complex and densely structured
-1 single mature human astrocyte can contact 2000 neurons and 2,000,000 individual synapses

58
Q

What’s the main function of astrocytes?

A

To ensure the environment around the neuron is conducive and receptive to electrical signals (provides ions and ensures the correct amount of ions for balance)

59
Q

What 3 ways do astrocytes achieve their function?

A

1.Nourishment:
■Produces chemicals (ions) needed by neurons
■Supplies glucose, oxygen from blood vessels
2.Support and guidance:
■Provides physical support (inc. guiding migration + growth direction during development)
3.Cleaning and protection:
■Clean up debris (phagocytosis)
■Neurotransmitter re-uptake

60
Q

How do astrocytes show support and guidance?

A

*Provides support for new-born neurons to migrate during development (aka “radial glia”)
*Acts as scaffolding (i.e., structural support) which direct the cells where to migrate.
*There are neurodevelopmental disorders caused by problems with glia.

61
Q

How do astrocytes achieve protection?

A

-forms part of the blood-brain barrier:a semi-permeable barrier controlling what passes from the blood to the brain
-protects the brain from potentially harmful substances e.g., pathogens, antibodies

62
Q

How do astrocytes achieve chemical communication?

A

-chemical signalling via Ca2+ waves
-BUT the function of this is unclear (potential role in coordinating activity over larger areas of the brain)

63
Q

What are Oligodendrocytes?

A

-Greek for few branch cells (appears in the CNS)
-helps speed up the processing of electrical signals (achieved by myelin which insulates the axon)

64
Q

What are Schwann cells?

A

-Similar to the Oligodendrocyte BUT in the PNS
-Speeds up the processing of the neuron by covering the axon in myelin
-Enables axonal regeneration (which can only occur in PNS)

65
Q

What’s the microglia?

A

■Smallest of the glial cells
■Originates from the immune system (from stem blood cells)
■Acts as the main form of immune defence in the CNS
–CNS historically considered ‘immune privileged’
–Microglia are a specialised form of CNS immune defence to destroy infected and diseased neurons
■Also involved in synaptic pruning=reducing the number of synapses over life

66
Q

How can glia play a role in Alzheimer’s disease?

A

-Microglia thought to play a role in this
-Occurs due to changes in the morphology of glia
-Black spots=areas where microglia has started to kill of neurons

67
Q

How can glia play a role in the degenerative disease amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS)?

A

Glia can be triggered to support the release of microglia (damaging vulnerable neuron types)

68
Q

How can glia play a role in Multiple sclerosis?

A

Caused via the malfunction of glia PARTICULARLY the failure of re-myelination by oligodendrocytes

69
Q

How can glia cause neuropathic pain?

A

-Activation of schwann cells, microglia and astrocytes
-Glia releases neuromodulators that induce plasticity and cause chronic pain

70
Q

How can glia play a role in mood/ psychological disorders? (don’t need to know massively in detail)

A

–Post-mortem findings showed reductions in glial cell no.s in some brain regions in patients with mood disorders.
–Specific reductions in oligodendrocytes have been reported for the amygdala in major depressive disorder (MDD)
–Related research has found a specific disruption of the paranode section where oligodendrocytes contact the neurons, affecting neuronal transmission and emotional processing

71
Q

What has glia dysfunction also been associated with?

A

-dyslexia
-autism
-stuttering
-tone deafness
-epilepsy
-sleep disorders
-pathological lying

72
Q

What are neurons essential for?

A

Sensing, thinking and acting (all functions are reflected in cell morphology)

73
Q

What are neuronal properties critical for?

A

Supporting a resting potential that SUPPORTS neuronal signalling and plasticity

74
Q

What are glial cells essential supporters of?

A

neuronal function (AND have a role to play in health and disease)

75
Q

Give 4 other examples of transmembranes excluding “leaky” K+ channels

A

1.voltage-gated channels (involved in voltage/action potentials)
2.ligand-gated (extracellular ligand)
3.ligand gated (intracellular ligand)
4.stress-activated channels (mechanical stress)

PSYC133: Biopsychology (10 decks)

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