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Research Skills > Week 2 > Flashcards

Week 2 Flashcards

1
Q

Define a population

A

The entire collection of events in which we are interested.

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2
Q

What would the population be in a study involving the reading ability of children with ADHD?

A

The population is all the children with ADHD.

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3
Q

Define a parameter

A

Numerical values that summarise the population data.

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4
Q

What are examples of a parameter in data?

A

The mean, standard deviation or correlation.

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5
Q

Are population parameters usually known?

A

No, they are usually unknown but can be estimated by sample statistics.

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6
Q

Define a sample

A

A set actual observations of the scores we have in hand.

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7
Q

Define statistics

A

Numerical values used to summarise the sample data. e.g mean (M), standard deviation (SD or s), correlation (r).

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8
Q

What is a sample mean?

A

A model of the population. The standard deviation provides an index of how well our model fits the data.

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9
Q

What is the aim of scientific research, and how can we achieve this?

A

To generalise beyond the specific sample. Therefore, we must carefully choose how to obtain a sample.

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10
Q

What is a tangible population?

A

Populations whose members exits at the time of sampling.

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11
Q

Give an example of a tangible population.

A

2020 UTAS students.

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12
Q

What is an abstract population?

A

Populations whose members may not exist at the time of sampling.

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13
Q

Give an example of an abstract population

A

25-35 year old males in 2020. Because males who are 35 will be excluded from this population in 2021, and males who are currently 24 will be added.

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14
Q

Give some examples of probability samples?

A

Simple random sample, stratified random sample, systematic samples and cluster samples.

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15
Q

What are probability samples?

A

If a population can be specified in advance and each member has SOME chance of being included in the sample.

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16
Q

What is a simple random sample?

A

Every member of the target population has an equal chance of being selected.

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17
Q

Give an example of a simple random sample

A

All full-time and part-time uni students at UTAS are invited to participate in the study by email, phone and social media. Random because it may not be representative o the entire population (e.g only female students participating).

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18
Q

What is the stratified random sample designed for?

A

To ensure the sample is representative.

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19
Q

How does a stratified random sample ensure the sample is representative?

A

Population is divided into subgroups. e.g, male, female 1st years, 2nd years. Final sample will include same proportions of those subgroups in the population.

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20
Q

What is a systematic sample?

A

Sampling every “n”th individual (or event). Which of the first n individuals is the starting point is determined randomly.

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21
Q

What is a cluster sample?

A

Samples taken from relevant clusters that exist in the population e.g schools, classrooms, suburbs, streets etc.

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22
Q

What are the steps in using cluster samples?

A
  1. determine relevant clusters
  2. select a pre-determined number of clusters
  3. collect data from every person in selected clusters
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23
Q

When are cluster samples useful?

A

When interventions cannot be practically assigned to individuals. E.g hard to teach students in a classroom using different methods

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24
Q

What are non probability samples?

A

If individuals in the population have no chance (0 probability) of being included, it is a non probability sample.

25
Q

List some examples of non probability samples

A

purposive samples, convenience samples, quota samples and snowball samples.

26
Q

What is a purposive sample?

A

When a population is initially defined, but there are inclusion and exclusion criteria. Individuals that satisfy inclusion criteria are potential participants.
e.g right handed; 18-35; smoker; ecstasy user.

27
Q

What is a convenience sample?

A

When a sample is drawn from an easily available group, not from the general population. May or may not include inclusion criteria.

28
Q

What is an example of a convenience sample?

A

First year psychology students or UTAS employees because they are easily available to us.

29
Q

What is a quota sample?

A

The goal is to have a given proportion of individuals of certain characteristics. They are sought until the relevant proportions are achieved.

30
Q

How does a quote sample differ from a stratified sample?

A

Differs because the researcher samples until relevant slots are filled and doesn’t specify in advance where they will come from.
It is also not clear what population the quota sample generalises to.

31
Q

What is a snowball sample?

A

Researcher identifies individuals with relevant characteristics. Those individuals are then asked to recruit participants with similar characteristics.

32
Q

Define attrition

A

The gradual loss of data or participants during the study.

33
Q

What are some sampling problems?

A

Low response rates and refusal to participate, therefore the results of study only generalise to those with characteristics similar to those that participated. Also, attrition.

34
Q

What are ethics?

A

A branch of philosophy which considers the study of value, ie the judgements of approval and disapproval, right and wrong, virtue or vice etc.

35
Q

What is used to combat an experimenters potential inability to objectively judge the ethical principles concerning their work?

A

Universities and research institutions have peer committees that judge the ethicality of research projects.

36
Q

When and why was the Nuremberg Code constructed?

A

Following World War 2, the people responsible for atrocities were Brough to trial. Out of this came the Nuremberg Code.

37
Q

What is the Nuremberg Code?

A

Came from the Nuremberg trials. A 10 point code for ethical conduct in relation to medical and psychological research.

38
Q

Briefly outline the first five points of the Nuremberg Code.

A
  1. Voluntary participation with consent. Participant is fully informed of the purposes, nature and duration of the experiment.
  2. Results have to be useful to society, and that cannot be obtained any other way
  3. Research has a footing in animal research and based on the natural history of problem under study.
  4. Research must avoid unnecessary physical or psychological harm to subjects
  5. Should not be conducted if there is risk of death or disability, perhaps except where the experimental physicians also serve as subjects
39
Q

Briefly outline points 6-10 of the Nuremberg Code

A
  1. Risk should be proportional to the benefits
  2. Proper plans to protect the subject against harm
  3. Research only conducted by highly qualified scientists
  4. Subject has freedom to withdraw at any time if they think continuing is not possible
  5. Researcher must be prepared to discontinue experiment if researcher realises that continuing will be harmful to the subjects
40
Q

What is the summary of items 2 and 3 in the Nuremberg Code?

A

That frivolous research is unethical and that research must be scientifically sound.

41
Q

What is the summary of items 4 to 8 of the Nuremberg Code?

A

Requires the researcher not to expose the subjects to potentially harmful practices.

42
Q

What is the summary of items 9 and 10 of the Nuremberg Code?

A

Research may be terminated by the subject or researcher is it appears unsafe.

43
Q

What are the three criteria that the American Psychological Association requires for research?

A
  1. Contribute to psychological science and human welfare
  2. Be carried out with respect and concern for the dignity and welfare of participants
  3. Obey state and federal laws and professional standards of conduct (including levels of skill)
44
Q

What are the 6 basic principles of psychological research?

A
  1. respect for persons
  2. Beneficence
  3. Justice
  4. Responsibility
  5. Competence
  6. Propriety
45
Q

What is the 10 point summary of the APA 1981 ethical guidelines for research with human subjects?

A
  1. Ethical acceptability of research
  2. Assessment of risk to participants
  3. Ethical practices by all agents
  4. Full and informed consent
  5. Avoidance/justification of deception
  6. Freedom to withdraw
  7. protection from harm
  8. Debriefing
  9. Detect and correct any undesirable consequences
  10. Protection of confidentiality
46
Q

What does APA stand for?

A

American Psychological association

47
Q

What does APS stand for?

A

Australian Psychological Society

48
Q

What are the Australian Psychological Societies general areas within their code of ethics?

A
  • Assessment procedures
  • consulting relationships
  • Teaching of Psychology
  • supervision and training
  • research
  • public statements
  • professional relationships
49
Q

What are the six core values to be demonstrated in research involving aboriginal and Torres Strait islanders?

A
  • Spirit and integrity
  • cultural continuity
  • equity
  • reciprocity
  • respect
  • responsibility
50
Q

Research involving aboriginal and Torres Strait islanders: what is the core value that binds all the other five values together?

A

Spirit and Integrity.
Spirit: ongoing connection and continutiy between their past, present and future generations
integrity: respect for their values and culture

51
Q

What is cultural continuity in regards to research with aboriginal and Torres Strait islanders?

A

Understanding their cultures. Demonstrating respect for intrinsic values. Engaging with their community.

52
Q

What is equity in regards to research with aboriginal and Torres Strait islanders?

A

Recognising their wisdom, and value of collective memory and shared experience. Recognising their resources. Fair and reasonable distribution of benefit.

53
Q

What is reciprocity in regards to research with aboriginal and Torres Strait islanders?

A

Equitable and respectful engagement with and inclusion of their people, values and culture. Understanding that the benefits they want may be different than our own valued benefits.

54
Q

What is respect in regards to research with aboriginal and Torres Strait islanders?

A

Acknowledgment and supportiveness of others different values, norms and aspirations.

55
Q

What is responsibility in regards to research with aboriginal and Torres Strait islanders?

A

Inflicting no harm.

56
Q

What does HREC stand for?

A

The Human Research Ethics Committee. Primary role to protect research participants, particularly those who may be more sensitive (e.g children, mentally handicapped).

57
Q

Is deception or concealment of a studies purposes always considered unethical?

A

Generally, because the participant isn’t fully informed, However in some fields, it might be acceptable. HREC will recognise this when interpreting the term “exceptional circumstance”.

58
Q

What are three things included in scientific misconduct?

A
  • misleading statements
  • fabrication of data
  • suppressions of findings
59
Q

What happened with Andre Wakefield and the MMR vaccine

A

stood trial for professional misconduct. was being paid to conduct the study by parents who believed their children had been harmed by MMR. Purchased blood samples for $5 each at his sons birthday party from children present. Was not an approved study.

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