Week 12 Flashcards
Why has a quantitative approach often been used in psychology?
In early days, it felt important that the subject was taken seriously as a genuine science
Who opened the first psychology lab?
Wilhelm Wundt, university of Leipzig
What is the main criticism of a quantitative approach in psych?
Research in psych does not always fit neatly into this type of scientific approach.
What are three smaller criticisms of the quantitative approach to psych research?
- it can be artificial
- it can over simplify complex phenomena
- it can be limited of some topics for logistical or ethical reasons
What does the ‘positivist’ quantitive approach to research imply?
That it is based on what people tend to think of as scientific methods
What type of observation is the quantitive approach?
An empirical one, meaning it is based on observable phenomena which can be supported by data or not
What assumption does the quantitative approach work on?
That there is an explanation for all phenomena.
What does the quantitative approach state about phenomena?
That phenomena, or behaviour, can be accurately predicted if enough information is known
Does the qualitative approach work by constructing and testing hypothesis?
no
How does the qualitative approach to research work?
A much more explorative approach which produces much richer information -the emphasis is on drawing theory from data, rather than testing theories with data
What does a qualitative approach to research aim to do?
Aims to understand the individual’s experience of the world and how they construct that view.
Denzin and Lincoln (2000) argue that the qualitative approach should be characterised by five points. what is the first?
- Concern with the richness of the description -qualitative research uses techniques that are less restrictive than the scales and measures used in quantitative research
Denzin and Lincoln (2000) argue that the qualitative approach should be characterised by two points. what is the second?
- Capturing the individuals perspective - qualitative research places more emphasis on the subjective experience of the individual, instead of looking at comparisons between groups of individuals
Denzin and Lincoln (2000) argue that the qualitative approach should be characterised by two points. what is the third?
Rejection of positivism and the use of post-modern perspectives - in contrast to quantitative researcher qualitative research states that there is no single reality to be explained and that creating generalisable findings is not the goal of the research
Denzin and Lincoln (2000) argue that the qualitative approach should be characterised by two points. what is the fourth?
Adherence to the postmodern sensibility -qualitative research is more involved and may include the researcher bringing about change for social good
Denzin and Lincoln (2000) argue that the qualitative approach should be characterised by two points. what is the fifth?
Examination of the constraints of everyday life - qualitative research acknowledges and includes factors beyond the focus of the study
Instead of validity and reliability to assess the quality of research studies in quantitive methods, what are the four concepts that qualitative research use instead of this?
- Dependability
- Auditable
- Transferable
- Idiographic
What does dependability mean in regard to qualitative research?
The knowledge from the research is obtained in a rigorous and systematic way
What does auditable mean in regard to qualitative research?
The research process has been recorded in detail
What does transferable mean in regard to qualitative research?
The extent to which the research findings can be transferred to other findings and groups
What does idiographic mean in regard to qualitative research?
Findings have an intrinsic worth even if they are not transferable
Why are epistemology and ontology important in analysing qualitative data?
Because they partly determine what kind of analysis we choose
What are some examples of where we might get data from for qualitative data?
- interviews
- focus groups
- newspaper
- social media sites
- children’s drawings
What is involved in a structured interview?
a pre-set list of questions. Does this make it a qualitative study then?
What are the pros and cons in a structured interviews?
pros:
-questions are prepared in advanced and hence well-formulated
-easier to compare responses
cons:
-questions are inflexible with no opportunity to follow up on unexpected comments
-questions may not be applicable to every participant
What are semi-structures interviews also known as?
Qualitative or in-depth interviews
What happens in a semi-structured interview?
The researcher has an interview schedule, but also deviate from questions where appropriate
What are the pros and cons of semi-structured interviews?
pros:
-the participant is free to raise issues which may lead to richer info
cons:
-becomes more difficult to generalise outcomes
-can be difficult to keep the interview on track
-the researcher has to come up with questions on the spot
What are the three types of interview probes?
- detail orientated probe
- elaboration probe
- clarification probe
What is a detail orientated probe?
Asking the participant for more detail, such as where an event took place
What is an elaboration probe?
Using either a question or gesture to encourage the participant fo reveal more info about a topic
What is a clarification probe?
used when the interviewer has misunderstood something, should always be phrased as a mistake by the researcher not the participant
What are the 6 steps in an interview structure?
- establish a rapport
- describe the purpose of the interview (consent)
- conduct interview
- end interview (summarise and thank)
- transcription (important as soon as possible)
- analyse the data
What are three good characteristics of an interviewer?
- familiar with the topic
- flexible and critical
- social judgement
What is a focus group?
Speaking to several participants at once. Focuses on the interaction between the individuals.
It can be argued that focus groups tend to be used more often in what type of research?
Explanatory
What are two ways to control participant interaction in focus groups?
- direct questions to group members who have not yet spoken by name
- avoid eye contact with members who keep directing comments to you and push your chair back
Textbook characteristics of quantitative vs. qualitative methods
- quantitative measures all tend to cover the same material in textbooks
- qualitative textbooks are much more diverse as methodologies vary greatly
the majority of qualitative research that is conducted consists of what?
interview or focus group data
how long can it generally take to transcribe a single hour of interviewing?
ten hours to properly do this
What happens if an interviewer transcribes an interview or focus group?
They are most familiar with the interview, but they may struggle to recognise the gaps in their own speech
What happens if the lead researcher transcribes an interview or focus group?
they may be the most familiar with the research area, but their time can be limited
What happens if a research assistant transcribes an interview or focus group?
They may be the most objective, but as with the interviewer and lead researcher, they will make mistakes
What is the Jefferson system?
One of the most popular transcribing methods. Does not use any special symbols. Does not record kinetic communication.
What does (0.2) mean as a Jefferson Symbol
The length of a pause between words
What does (.) mean as a Jefferson symbol?
A micro-pause -short but noticeable
What does ::: mean as a Jefferson symbol?
An extended sound such as ‘Emmm’
What does [ ] mean as a Jefferson symbol?
Two people speaking at the same time
What does = mean as a Jefferson symbol?
Two people overlapping slightly
What does > < mean as a Jefferson symbol?
Speaking at a faster rate
What does_ mean as a Jefferson symbol?
Emphasising a particular syllable
What does * mean as a Jefferson symbol?
higher pitch
What does oWORDo mean as a Jefferson symbol?
Word is quietly spoken
What does (??) mean as a Jefferson symbol?
Inaudible speech, sometimes shown as xxxx
Thematic analysis has in the past been unpopular with researchers, why is it now resurfacing?
it has changed and resurfaced because it is relatively straightforward and produced easily communicable results to non-academics
Why is thematic analysis sometimes criticised?
For lacking consistency in how it is applied.
Which three times can thematic analysis be useful?
- When there is no strong theoretical perspective to drive the analysis
- Data consists of written transcripts of documents
- the data is rich with detail and covering a lot of ground
How many different types of thematic analysis are there?
several
All variation of thematic analysis vary on the basis of identifying what?
themes
What does a theme refer to in thematic analysis?
A word or phrase which represents a pattern of issues raised in interviews
Even though there are many approaches for thematic analysis, should they all eventually arrive at the same outcome?
yes
What is Braun and Clarkes model of six stages of thematic analysis?
- data familiarisation
- initial coding generation
- search for themes based on initial coding
- review of themes
- theme definition and labelling
- report writing
Describe step 1 of thematic analysis: data familiarisation
- researcher must become familiar with the data, ideally by writing the transcription
- however because it is difficult for a researcher to do all the transcription, the should at least read the transcript
Describe step 2 of thematic analysis: initial coding generation
- going through transcript and summarising
- a common mistake at this stage is trying to interpret what was said rather than just labelling it
Describe step 3 of thematic analysis: searching for themes based on initial coding
-start to see certain repeated codes and some are linked together
for example it might generate help, problematic or argument codes
-should be willing to revise codes
Describe step 4 of thematic analysis: review of themes
- unlikely that the first list of themes will be the last
- make sure your conclusions are justified and themes are supported by codes and evidence
- must be transparent, even thought there’s no “correct” outcome
Describe step 5 of thematic analysis: theme definition and labelling
- once found, themes need to be examined and clearly defined (the most accurate word for it)
- ensure there is no overlap between themes (likely to identify sub themes)
Describe step 6 of thematic analysis: report writing
- might be in presentation form
- diagrams might be useful to show codes and how these support themes
- reflective approach
- more selective of data, individual quotes can help this
What is one problem with the step 6 report writing part of thematic analysis?
temptation for researcher to “pick out the best quotes” which supports their own view. Often treated with scepticism as easy for researcher to provide own agenda.
What is the most easily learned system and this understood by non-academics?
Thematic analysis
What are three strengths of thematic analysis?
- easily understood by target population
- used to process larger amounts of data
- easy to read, more likely to be used by policy makers
What are four limitation os thematic analysis?
- difficult to distinguish themes
- caution when interpreting
- certain codes which don’t contribute can be ignored or minimised
- not really compatible with the Jefferson system
how has the structure of thematic analysis been criticised?
For lacking clearly defined steps
