Week 2 Flashcards
Name these components from largest to smallest unit:
Fascicle, Myofibril, Fiber, Sarcomere, Myofilament
Fascicle > Fiber > Myofibril > Myofilament > Sarcomere
What are thick and thin filaments composed of?
Thick: Myosin
Thin: Actin
Name and describe the three troponin complex components
Troponin T: Binds to tropomyosin and anchors troponin complex
Troponin C: Binds Ca+2
Troponin I: Binds to actin and inhibits actin-myosin interaction
What does Dystrophin do?
Large protein that links laminin of the ECM to actin
What does Destin do?
Intermediate filament. Forms a lattice
What does tropomodulin do?
Actin-capping protein. Maintains and regulates length
Describe the I band of a sarcomere
Spans between thin filament of 1 sarcomere to another, the midline includes the Z band
Describe the A band of a sarcomere
Comprised of thick filament and the M line. Also includes some thin & thick filament overlap
What the H band?
Comprised of only the M line and thick filament. As the sarcomere shortens, the H band shrinks
Of the A band, H band, and I band which one stays constant length regardless of contraction state of a muscle
A band remains constant
What is the sarcoplasmic reticulum? Name and structure/component of the sarcoplasmic reticulum that plays a significant role in muscle contraction
- Network mesh surrounding myofibril -Terminal cisternae
What do terminal cisternae do? Where are they found?
They are the demarcation of the end of a sarcoplasmic reticulum. They release Ca+2 into the sarcoplasm via Ca+2 release channels
Describe the composition of a triad in skeletal muscle
T tubule with two adjacent terminal cisternae abutting against either side of the T tubule
What is the transverse tubular system?
It is an invagination of a sarcolemma that contains T tubules
What is the purpose of a T-tubule?
Contain voltage-sensor proteins that are activated by sarcolemma (cell membrane) depolarization. They affect Ca+2 release channels in adjacent terminal cisternae
What is the motor end plate?
Point of contact b/t two motor neuron axon & muscle fiber. Facilitates transmission of nerve impulses
Once the Na+ depolarizes a neuromuscular junction, what are the next 5 steps for skeletal myofibril
1.) Depolarization spreads to T tubules 2.) Voltage sensor proteins change conformation 3.) Ca+2 release channels activated 4.) Ca+2 rapidly released from SR 5.) Ca+2 binds to Troponin C of the troponin complex 9.) Excitation coupling begins and Ca+2 returns to terminal cisternae
What do satellite cells do in muscles?
Located b/t sarcolemma of a muscle fiber and its external lamina. Has a limited regenerative capacity
Myasthenia Gravis may appear clinically with ptosis, diplopia and dysphasia. What does the condition do to the body?
Autoimmune disorder wherein autoantibodies block or destroy ACh receptors at the NMJ. This damages the nerves. More common in women
What is the treatment for Myasthenia Gravis?
Steroids which reduce antibodies the bind to ACh receptors
What are two known forms of Muscular Dystrophy?
Beckers (less severe) and Duchenne’s
What cellular component is disrupted in Duchenne Muscular Dystrophy?
Mutation of the gene which codes for dystrophin which disrupts the anchoring of cytoskeleton through the sarcolemma to the ECM
What are the repercussions of dystrophin mutation of Duchenne muscular dystrophy?
Sarcolemma tears during muscle contraction, Ca++ influx into the muscle cell and causes death and degeneration. This is then replaced by fatty deposits and connective tissue
Muscular dystrophy is an ____ linked recessive disorder
X linked
Why is Becker’s Muscular dystrophy less severe version?
The dystrophin protein is produced but truncated so less muscle fibrosis occurs
What is the foramen magnum?
Area of transition from brain to spinal cord
What structure is located behind brainstem and considered “the backpack to the brainstem”
The cerebellum
Name the layers within the skull from outermost to innermost:
Pia, Dura, Subarachnoid space, Arachnoid space
Dura > Arachnoid > Subarachnoid space > Pia matter
Where does the spinal cord normally end within the vertebral column?
L2
Where might one find trabeculae & blood vessels and filled with CSF regarding the meningeal layers?
Would find the subarachnoid space
List the order of Dens, Midbrain, and Medulla that sit superior to the foramen magnum in the brain. List from most superior to inferior
Midbrain > Medulla > Dens > Foramen magnum
What is different about the exiting of nerve in C1-C6 compared to C7 and T1-L5
C1-C6: nerves exit superior to the vertebrae, C7: C8 Nerve exits inferior to the vertebrae, T1-L5: Nerves exit inferior to the vertebrae
Describe the organization of nerves as they leave the spinal cord
Nerve roots extend from the spinal cord to converge into a ganglia then split again to form spinal nerves and Rami
What is a dorsal root ganglion?
Sit containing cell bodies of sensory neurons that reside in the intervertebral foramina
What and where are denticulate ligaments
Span from the Pia in the spinal cord, pierce through the arachnoid layer and attach to dura matter to stabilize the spinal cord
Aside from the denticulate ligaments, what is another component of the meningeal layers in the spinal cord that aids in stabilization
Arachnoid trabecula
What might be found in the lumbar cistern?
Cauda equine present, Large pool of CSF
Where does CSF come from?
Filtered from plasma through specialized blood vessels inside the ventricular brain system m
Describe the flow of CSF from brain to cauda equina
1st and 2nd ventricle houses specialized vessels which form CSF. From the L & R side they drain via interventricular foramen to the 3rd ventricle. The 3rd ventricle connects to the 4th via Cerebral aqueduct and exists to the spinal cord
T/F: During a lumbar puncture, some blood can be present even tho normal CSF is clear
True, during the first spinal tap called a traumatic tap. But if continues, could indicate hemorrhage
How does glucose levels compare in the CSF to other places in the body
Glucose in the CSF should be lower
How does protein composition compare in the CSF to the rest of the body?
Lower in the CSF
How does cellular components compare in the CSF to the rest of the body
There should be few if not no cells
Glucose in the CSF should be a lower value compared to the rest of the body. If glucose is high what might it indicate?
Bacteria or fungi are present feeding on the glucose
Normally protein levels should be lower in the CSF compared to other places in the body. If protein levels are abnormally high, what might this indicate?
Presence of auto antibodies further suspect inflammation or infection
CSF should be clear, if it is cloudy what might this indicate? If CSF has filaments, what might this indicate?
Bacterial infection: cloudy/colored
Fungal: clear solution with filaments inside
What artery is found within the suboccipital triangle?
Vertebral artery
What nerve travels through the suboccipital triangle for motor innervation
Suboccipital nerve
What is the deepest muscle of the lumbar back?
Multifidus
What nerve travels above obliquuis capitis inferior and rectus capitus major?
Greater occipital nerve
Name 5 types of resident cells in connective tissue
1.) Reticular
2.) Fibroblasts
3.) Mast Cells
4.) Macrophages
5.) Adipocytes
What are two types of transient cells of cells? From what do these cells arise from?
They come from hematopoietic stem cells
1.) Leukocytes
2.) Plasma cells
Immunoglobulins are secreted by what type of transient cell in connective tissue?
Plasma cells
Immunoglobulins are secreted by what type of transient cell in connective tissue?
Plasma cells
Extracellular matrix is composed of ________ _______________ & _______________. The ECM in its entirety are made from indications from the resident cells of connective tissue, is this true or false?
Ground substance and fibers
True
While Fibers may be considered part of the extracellular matrix, what type of resident cells of connective tissue synthesize the precursor for tropoelastin?
Fibroblasts
Deposition of elastin in the form of fibers requires the presence of a template of microfibrils of the structural glycoprotein _______________ and associated glycoproteins. Cross-links involve _______________ and ____________________________
Fibrillin
desmosine
Isodesmosine
Fibroblasts are not only responsible for synthesiszing components of elastin, they also aid in production of _________ & ___________.
Collagen
Myofibroblasts
What do myofibroblasts do?
Aid in tissue repair and wound contraction
The ECM of cells is partly comprised of ground substance. Three major kinds of macromolecules including: glycosaminoglycans (GAGs), ________________, and __________________ __________________. What is the most well known GAG?
proteoglycans
multiadhesive glycoproteins
Hylauronan (hyaluronic acid)
The ECM of cells is partly comprised of ground substance. Three major kinds of macromolecules including: glycosaminoglycans (GAGs), ________________, and __________________ __________________. What is the most well known GAG?
proteoglycans
multiadhesive glycoproteins
Hyaluronan (hyaluronic acid)
Some GAGs have__________________ proteoglycans associated with them. name 2
sulfated
Perlecan
Aggrecan
Laminin and fibronectin are examples of:
They bind to integrin proteins
Examples of multiadhesive glycoproteins that are constituents of the ground substance of ECM in connective tissue
All connective tissue originate from:
Mesoderm then embryonic mesenchyme
Mast cells are regarded as resident cells of connective tissue. Describe their action in the immediate hypersensitivity response.
Release histamine which can result in urticaria, allergic rhinitis, asthma and anaphylactic shock
Reticular cells are regarded as resident cells of connective tissue. What do they do?
Produce reticular fibers that form the netlike stroma of hematopoietic, lymphoid, and adipose tissue
___________________ of the connective tissue originate from resident cells. They produce cytokines, _____________________chemotactic factors, and several other molecules that participate in inflammation, _______________ processing and presentation
Macrophages
Chemotactic
Antigen
Which cells have secretory granules containing heparin, histamine and can display metachromasia?
Mast cells
Macrophages secrete matrix of metalloproteinases which are:
Endopeptidates that are involved in remodeling and chronic inflammation
Macrophages are involved in phagocytosis of ECM components and debris; ____________ process and presentation to immune cells, secretion of growth factors, cytokines, and other agents. To remove large foreign objects, such as splinters, macrophages may fuse to form:
Antigen
Multinuclear giant cells
_________________ Connective tissue forms a layer beneath the epithelial lining of many organs and fills the spaces between fibers of muscle tissues and nerves. It is also known as: _______________ tissue.
Loose
Areolar
1.) What type of fibers predominate in loose connective tissue?
2.) Why does this tissue have “delicate consistency”?
1.) Collagen fibers predominate, elastic and reticular fibers are also present
2.) Little ground substance
1.) The reticular layer of the dermis, submucosa of the gut and many organ capsules are comprised of what type of connective tissue?
2.) The collagen network within this tissue provides:
1.) Dense irregular tissue
2.) Resistance to stress from all directions
Why is damage to dense regular connective tissue slow?
This connective tissue is poorly vascularized
Dense regular tissue is comprised of ________ _____ ___________ bundles and ______________. Some examples of this tissue are _________, aponeuroses, ____________, & deep fascia
Type I Collagen bundles
Fibroblasts
Tendons
Ligaments
Mucoid connective is referred to as Wharton’s jelly that comprises umbilical cords. What makes it soft/“jelly” like?
Abundant ground substance with Hyaluronan (keeps water in)
Wharton’s jelly is comprised of what type of connective tissue? Where else might this tissue be found?
Mucoid connective tissue
Can be found in intervertebral discs’ nucleus pulposus
Ligamenta flava, Ligamentum nuchae, vocal ligaments, and suspensory ligament of penis are comprised of what type of connective tissue. Describe its composition
1.) Elastic connective tissue
2.) Fibers predominate most of which are elastic
1.) What type of connective tissue creates networks for cells to be suspended on/within.
2.) What type of cells are scattered within this type of tissue?
1.) Reticular tissue
2.) Reticular cells, lymphocytes
Within reticular connective tissue, little ____________ ____________ is found. It supports mobiles cells and filters body fluids and occurs mainly in _______________ tissues, such as bone marrow, spleen, and lymph nodes
Ground substance
Hematopoietic
1.) What if found in high volumes of brown adipose connective tissue for its specialized role in temperature regulation?
2.) What does the uncoupling protein-1, thermogenin, do?
1.) Mitochondria
2.) It uncouples mitochondrial metabolism from production of ATP to produce heat
What three basic components are found in all connective tissue types?
Cells, fibers and ground substance. Of which the latter two make up the ECM
List the 7 types of connective tissue
1.) Loose/Areolar
2.) Dense irregular
3.) Dense regular
4.) Reticular CT
5.) Elastic CT
6.) Mucoid (mucous) connective tissue
7.) Adipose tissue
Write the Henderson-Hasselbach Equation
pH = pKa + Log (Conjugate Base/Weak Acid)
For every factor of 10 difference in [H+] proton represents a difference of ____ pH unit.
For every factor of 2 difference in [H+] proton represents a difference of _____ pH unit.
1
0.3
For every factor of ____ difference in [H+] proton represents a difference of 1 pH unit.
For every factor of _____ difference in [H+] proton represents a difference of 0.3 pH unit.
10
2
As carbon dioxide goes into solution, carbonic acid (H2CO3) is formed which then partially dissociates which:
Liberates H+ and makes the solution MORE acidic
As carbon dioxide leaves solution, carbonic acid (H2CO3) is used up which:
uses up H+ protons and causes the solution to become LESS acidic and INCREASES the pH
When pH < pKa what can you infer about the ratio of [A-]/[HA] aka CB/WA. Write the explanation
There is more weak acid compared to CB
When pH > pKa what can you infer about the ratio of [A-]/[HA] aka CB/WA. Write the explanation
There is more Conjugate base in solution compared to Weak acid
When pH = pKa what can you infer about the ratio of conjugate base to Weak acid?
They are in equilibrium
List the names of three biological buffers
Bicarbonate
Hydrogen peroxide
Proteins
What is the formula for carbonic acid?
H2CO3
If pKa < pH what can you infer about the protonation state of an ionizable group?
Depronated
If pKa > pH what can you infer about the protonate state of an ionizable group?
Protonated
If pH > pKa what can you infer about the protonation state of the ionizable groups?
Deprotonated
If pH < pKa what can you infer about the protonation state of the ionizable groups?
Protonated
pH < ____ is considered acidosis
7.35
pH > _______ is considered Alkalosis
7.45
pH > _______ is considered Alkalosis
7.45
Normal values are as follows:
pH = 7.4 +/- 0.5
[CO2] = ____ mM
P ______ = 40 mmHg
[HCO3] aka ________= 24 mM
1.2
Pressure CO2
Bicarbonate
For a molecule with one amine and one carboxyl group, how can one determine the isoelectric point?
pI = (pKa1+ pKa2)/ 2
For a molecule with 2 amines and one carboxyl group, how can we determine the isoelectric point?
pI = (pKa 2 + pKa3) / 2
How can we determine the isoelectric of a molecule with 2 carboxyl groups and 1 amine group?
pI = (pKa1 + pKa2) /2
What is the acronym for remembering essential Amino Acids?
PVT TIM HALL
_______________________ is an acute form of childhood protein-energy malnutrition characterized by an enlarged liver with fatty infiltrates , edema and ulcerative dermatitis
Kwashiorkor
Aside from symptoms, what is a distinguishing factor between Kwashiorkor and Marasmus?
Marasmus is calorie deprivation while Kwashiorkor is protein-energy deprivation
__________________ is the smallest amino acid. It is a precursor for collagen and is also an inhibitory ________________________.
Glycine
Neurotransmitter
Which amino acids can be used for O-linked glycosylation?
Serine/Threonine & Tyrosine
Which amino acids can be used for N-linked glycosylation?
Asparagine
Phenylalanine synthesizes which other amino acid?
This A.A. is a precursor for dopamine, epinephrine, and melanin
Tyrosine
What is the charge of ACIDIC amino acids at PHYSIOLOGIC pH?
Negatively charged
What is the charge of BASIC amino acids a physiologic pH?
Positively charged
When considering isotonic force, describe the tension and length of the muscle
In isotonic force, the tension remains constant while the length changes for the muscle
When considering isometric force, describe the length and tension of the muscle
In isometric force, the tension will increase while the length will remain constant
Active tension is directly proportional to:
The number of myosin-actin bridges formed
Respiratory acidosis may be indicated by:
1.)
2.)
1.) Decreased ventilation
2.) Increased pCO2
Decreased ventilation and increased pCO2 (pCO2 greater than 40) would indicate:
Respiratory Acidosis
What is H2CO3?
Carbonic acid
an intermediate of the bicarbonate buffer system
What is HCO-3?
Bicarbonate ion
When considering the bicarbonate buffer system, is CO2 an acid or base?
Can be considered an acid since its conjugate base is HCO3
Metabolic Acidosis exhibits
Decreased HCO-3, bicarbonate
Decreased extracellular fluid HCO3- concentration of less than 24 mm and PCO2 < 40 mm Hg after partial respiratory compensation is:
Metabolic acidosis
Decreased extracellular fluid HCO3- concentration of less than 24 mm and PCO2 < 40 mm Hg after partial respiratory compensation is:
Metabolic acidosis
What is respiratory alkalosis?
Increased ventilation and decreased PCO2
What is metabolic alkalosis?
Increased xtracellular fluid HCO3- (bicarbonate) concentration
How can you determine molar concentration if only given pH
pH = - log [H+]
10 ^ (-molar concentration)
How can you calculate the pI of a molecule with one amine and one carboxyl group?
pI = (pKa 1 + pKa2) / 2
What is the inflection point on a titration curve? What does it incidate?
- It is the isoelectric point
- At what pH is the net charge of the molecule 0
- where the concentration of acid and conj. base are equal
How can you calculate the pI of a molecule with 1 amine and 2 carboxyl groups?
pI = (pKa1 + pKa2) / 2
An increase in bicarbonate ion causes:
Why?
pH to rise
According to the bicarbonate buffer system, if the log ratio of conjugate base to weak acid will rise and cause the overall pH to rise
What compound is the first to loose its proton when titrating a compound?
COOH will loose H+ first
When pH is low, what charge will the amino group have?
NH+3
Groups will be protonated
When pH is > 2, what groups will be deprontonated?
Carboxyl and R group are deprotonated
When pH < 9 which which group will be protonated?
amino group
What is the normal concentration of CO2?
1.2
What is the normal partial pressure of CO2?
40 mmHg
What is the normal concentration of bicarbonate? What is HCO-3?
concentration of Bicarbonate 24 mmHg
