Week 19 Flashcards
An organism that carries a gene (or genes) from a different species that was (or were) introduced via genetic engineering, is called ______.
a transgenic organism
Because the _____ ______ is nearly universal, a gene from one organism can be placed into a completely different organism and direct the production of the same protein.
genetic code
Scientists can use a number of techniques to inactivate one or more genes in an animal, such as a mouse. Such animals are called _______.
knockout animals
What are knockout mice used for?
To identify during which developmental stage a gene functions
To determine the function of a gene
To determine if a gene is essential for survival or not
Click and drag on elements in order
Order the steps in creating a knockout mouse starting at the top.
- Disrupt the cloned gene with a marker gene using recombinant DNA techniques.
- Introduce the interrupted gene into embryonic stem cells.
- Select for cells containing the marker gene.
- Inject ES cells containing the knocked-out gene into an embryo early in its development.
- Implant the embryo into a pseudopregnant female.
- Cross transgenic animals to generate homozygous lines.
A(n) _____
organism is one that has genes introduced into it via genetic engineering.
Blank 1: transgenic, genetically modified, or GM
Scientists can construct specific genetic alterations of a gene in vitro and then use biotechnology to replace a normal gene in a mouse with the constructed altered gene. This results in the creation of a _____
mouse.
Blank 1: knockin
A human gene can be placed into the genome of a bacterium, such as E. coli, and the bacterium will make the encoded protein. How is that possible?
This is possible because of the universal genetic code.
_______ ________
allows the creation of knockout animals, in which a gene is knocked out only in cells of a specific tissue or at a specific time during development.
Conditional inactivation
A mouse, which has had one of its genes inactivated, is called a ___
mouse.
Blank 1: knockout
Several techniques can be used to insert foreign DNA into plant cells. Whatever technique is used, it is particularly difficult to construct knockout plants because ______.
foreign genes generally insert in a random part of the genome
_____ mice can be used to determine the effect(s) of inactivated genes in the adult animal. This can tell scientists whether a gene is essential and what its function might be.
Blank 1: Knockout
The Ti plasmid of A. tumefaciens contains genes that cause the formation of a plant ______
, or a gall, in infected tissues.
tumor
During the creation of a ______ mouse, a gene, which has been interrupted by replacing part of it with a marker gene, is introduced into mouse ______
stem cells.
knockout
embryonic
The Ti plasmid of A tumefaciens can be used to transform plant cells and create transgenic plants by replacing the genes responsible for _______
formation and replacing them with a gene of interest.
Blank 1: gall or tumor
What are “knockin” mice?
Mice which have had a normal allele replaced with an allele that has a specific genetic alteration
A scientist wants to create a knockout mouse, in which a gene is knocked out only in brain cells. One approach that can be used by the scientist is _______
inactivation.
Blank 1: conditional
In plant transformation via particle bombardment, gold or tungsten ______
are coated with recombinant _____
, and fired at plant tissues.
Blank 1: nanoparticles or nano-particles
Blank 2: DNA
identify the general approaches used to introducing foreign DNA into plant cells.
Physical bombardment
Using bacteria to transfer genes
Electroporation
Choose all applications of environmental biotechnology.
Reduce human impact on the environment
Increase the sustainability of resources
Repair environmental damage
Selects all features of the Ti plasmid.
It contains sequences that can transfer part of the plasmid into plant cells.
It is carried by the plant pathogen Agrobacterium tumefaciens.
It contains genes that normally cause the formation of a plant tumor.
The two main types of liquid biofuels currently produced are _____
and ______.
Blank 1: ethanol
Blank 2: biodiesel
Place the steps in the process of creating transgenic plants in the correct order starting at the top.
- The Ti plasmid is isolated from A. tumefaciens.
- The genes responsible for gall formation are replaced with a gene of interest.
- The Ti plasmid is re-introduced into A. tumefacines.
- A. tumefaciens is used to infect plant cells.
- Transformed plant cells are induced under the proper nutritional and hormonal conditions to produce a mature plant.
Choose all advantages of biofuels.
They are environmentally friendly because the carbon in them is derived from atmospheric CO2.
They are renewable.
Place the steps in the process of plant transformation via particle bombardment in the correct order starting at the top.
- Gold or tungsten nanoparticles are coated with recombinant DNA
- Plant tissue fragments are “bombarded” with nanoparticles.
- Plant tissues are grown in vitro and eventually induced to differentiate and produce a mature plant
The use of biological processes to protect and repair the environment from negative human impacts is part of a growing area of biological applications called _____ ______.
Blank 1: environmental
Blank 2: biotechnology
Consider two microalgal species that are candidates for use in the manufacture of biodiesel. Species A contains 13% protein and 42% lipids. Species B contains 16% protein and 31% lipids. Which species is a better candidate for biodiesel production?
Species A, because it contains more lipids
are fuels produced by harvesting and using biotechnology to process the biomass of plants or algae.
Blank 1: Biofuels
Genes from genetically modified corn frequently move to non-genetically modified corn plants because of outcrossing. This is a major concern to ______.
organic farmers, whose fields are close to transgenic corn, because transgenic crops cannot be certified as organic
Biofuels are environmentally friendly because ______.
the carbon in them comes from atmospheric CO2 that was fixed by plants or algae
What part of algal cells is used for the production of biodiesel?
Their lipids
Select concerns that have been raised regarding genetically modified crops
They may cause a loss in biodiversity.
They may not be safe for human consumption.
They may cause allergic reactions.
Pharma vs Biotech
The difference- Pharmaceutical companies would also be involved in drug development. But they’ll be looking at chemically synthesised drug or purifying compounds to make the drug, they are not going to be using living organisms. So if you are using living organisms then that’s the basis of Biotechnology.
White biotechnology-
- Industrial chemicals
- Enzymes
Industrial biotechnology-
Use of living organisms or their derivatives to make industrial products
Chemicals
Enzymes
Vitamins
Amino acids
Citric acid production-
Citric acid from lemons
• Citric acid was produced in the UK in 1826
• Lemons were imported from Italy
• Calcium citrate was produced and converted to citric acid chemically- mixture of biotech and chemical technology.
• 1923 – large scale production using Aspergillus niger began in New York
• Citric acid producers in the UK started using A . niger for production- is now a model fungus. Producing citric acid without extracting the calcium citrate from lemons.
Industrial chemical production- examples.
Acetic acid-
• Fermentation of ethanol or methanol by microbes
• 200,000 tonnes produced annually
Butanol-
• From petroleum or fermentation by Clostridium
• Used in plastics, paint, resins and brake fluid
• 1.2 million tonnes produced annually
Lactic acid–
• Half of lactic acid in Europe is made by microbes
• Used as acidifier, preservative and in plastics
What are the properties of Enzymes?
Enzymes were traditionally obtained from microorganisms, plants and animals.
Amylase (plants and yeast)
Pepsin (stomach of pigs and cows)
Rennet (calf stomachs)
Trypsin; chymotrypsin (pancreas of pigs)
Proteases (e.g. papain from papaya and ficin from figs)
What are the properties of enzymes?
Enzymes have many industrial and home uses
Pectinases-
•needed to break down pectin in manufacture of fruit juice and baby food
Proteases-
•many uses including in leather tanning
Phytases-
•added to animal feed to enable digestion of phosphate- so phosphate is not a limiting factor.
What are Detergents?
- Enzymes have been used in detergents since the 1960s
- Subtilisin from Bacillus subtilis
- Also used are alkaline proteases, amylases and lipases
- Nowadays subtilisin is modified to increase stability and efficacy
What are the properties of Enzymes from fungi?
- “emersed culture” to produce amylases and proteases from Aspergillus oryzae- this would be used to produce amylases and proteases and various other enzymes. This essentially helps the fungi to grow on straw beds and then the compounds are produced and extracted from these beds. So it wasn’t as efficient as a modern culture method.
- “submerged cultures’’ of A . oryzae in large bioreactors from the 1950s- essentially liquid cultures often in these large bioreactors.
Advantages: high yields, cheap, continuous production
What are Immobilised enzymes?
Enzyme recycling
If enzymes are safe and cheap to manufacture , then they can remain in the end product or be discarded.
But what if enzymes are expensive or need to be removed from the end product?
Use immobilised enzymes Immobilised enzymes are enzymes that are fixed in some way
e.g . in a gel or to a membrane. In this way it will be easy for us to prevent the enzyme from being moved into the end-product and we won’t need to keep manufacturing such large quantities of it, so it will reduce production costs.
1) Recyclable
2) Increased stability
3) Absent from end product
4) Lower production costs
Immobilised enzymes: glucose isomerase-
Traditionally when we want a source of sweetness we use sucrose which can be manufactured from many different things but normally from sugar cane or from sugar beets. Could also use glucose which can be readily available for many different things. So from grains, from potatoes, from cassava. We could use glucose instead of sucrose. However, glucose is only about 75% as sweet as sucrose so we would need to use more of it.
• Glucose isomerase ( converts glucose into its sweeter isomer( a compound with the same chemical formula, but it’s got a different configuration), fructose
Fructose is twice as sweet as glucose, so if we are producing fructose using glucose isomerase, then we can produce less of it and still have the same amount of sweetness in our products- a cost saving measure.
• Glucose isomerase was first isolated from Streptomyces spp . in the 1950 s
• 1960s - High fructose corn syrup
• Glucose isomerase was expensive to manufacture
• Immobilisation was used successfully to increase fructose yield
Use of immobilised glucose isomerase reduces the production cost by ___ compared to use of the soluble enzyme.
Fructose content of HFCS is now ____
___% fructose
___% fructose
- -40%
- -55%.
- -15%
- -42%
Relative cost of using immobilised enzymes vs non-immobilised enzymes.
Soluble form shows you’ve got much larger costs of staff for example, when you are using the glucose isomerase that’s soluble, much reduced staff costs when you are using the immobilised enzyme. The enzyme itself is at a much lower cost because it is being recycled and is being recovered and used again.
Red (_____) biotechnology includes-
health
Biopharmaceuticals Recombinant proteins Vaccines Antibodies Stem cells Animal models Gene therapy
