WEEK 13 Flashcards
________identified nine separate characteristics that define temperament or how children react to situations. Each child’s pattern is made up of a combination of these individual elements.
Chess and Thomas (1995)
among children differs widely. Some babies are constantly on the go and rarely quiet. They wiggle and squirm in their crib as early as 2 weeks of age. Parents put such children to sleep in one end of a crib and find them in the other end an hour later; such children will not stay seated in bathtubs and refuse to be confined in playpens. Other babies, by contrast, move little, stay where they are placed, and appear to take in their environment in a quieter, more docile way. Both patterns are normal; they merely reflect two extremes of motor activity, one characteris- tic of temperament.
Activity Level
Even as infants, such children tend to wake up at the same time each morning, are hungry at regular 4-hour periods, nap at the same time every day, and have a bowel movement at the same time every day. They are predictable and easy to care for because their par- ents learn early on what to expect from them.
Rhythmicity
refers to a child’s response on initial contact with a new stimulus. They smile and “talk” to strangers and accept a first feeding or a new food without spitting up or fussing. They explore new toys without appre- hension.
Approach
ability to change one’s reaction to stimuli over time. Infants who are adaptable can change their first reaction to a situation without exhibiting extreme distress. The first time such children are placed in a bathtub they might protest loudly, for example, but by the third time they sit splashing happily. This is in contrast to infants who cry for months whenever they are put into a bathtub or who cannot seem to accustom themselves to a new bed, new car seat, or new caregiver.
Adaptability
Some children react to situations with their whole being. They cry loudly, thrash their arms, and begin temper tantrums when their diapers are wet, when they are hungry, and when their parents leave them. Others rarely demonstrate such overt symptoms of anger or have a mild or low-intensity reaction to stress.
Intensity of Reaction
Children who are easily distracted or who can easily shift their attention to a new situation (distractibility) are easy to care for. If they are crying over the loss of a toy, they can be appeased by the offer of a different one.
Distractibility
ability to remain interested in a project or activity. Like other aspects of temperament, this varies among children. Some play by themselves with one toy for an hour; others spend no more than 1 or 2 minutes with each toy. The degree of persistence also varies. Some infants keep trying to perform an activity even when they fail time after time; others stop try- ing after one unsuccessful attempt
Attention Span and Persistence
in- tensity level of stimulation that is necessary to evoke a reaction. Children with a low threshold need little stimulation; those with a high threshold need intense stimulation before they become upset over a situation.
Threshold of Response.
A child who is always happy and laughing has a positive mood quality. Obviously, this can make a major difference in the parents’ enjoyment of a child. Parents are bound to spend more time with a child who is always happy than with a child who has a negative mood quality.
Mood Quality
CATEGORIES OF TEMPERAMENT
The Easy Child
The Difficult Child
Slow-to-Warm-Up Child
Children are rated as “easy to care for” if they have a predictable rhythmicity, approach and adapt to new situations readily, have a mild to moderate in- tensity of reaction, and have an overall positive mood quality. Most children are rated by their par- ents as being in this category.
The Easy Child
Children are “difficult” if they are irregular in habits, have a negative mood quality, and withdraw rather than approach new situations. Only about 10% of children fall into this category.
The Difficult Child
Children fall into this category if they are overall fairly inactive; respond only mildly and adapt slowly to new situations, and have a general negative mood. About 15% of children display this pattern. When discussing this temperament with parents, try to use positive terms such as “ways to find a healthy fit for your child” rather than stressing ways the child is hard to manage.
Slow-to-Warm-Up Child
One instrument that is helpful in evaluating temperament is the
Carey-McDevitt Infant Temperament Questionnaire
Carey-McDevitt Infant Temperament Questionnaire (Carey & McDevitt, 1978). This consists of_____ responses and can be answered by a parent in approximately______ min- utes.
95
25
arrhythmic, withdrawing, low in adaptability, intense, and negative in mood
Difficult
inactive, low in approach and
adapt- ability, and negative in mood
Slow to warm up
some characteristics of both
groups
Intermediate
rhythmic, approaching, adaptable, mild, and positive in mood
Easy
The following environmental influences are those most likely to affect growth and development.
Socioeconomic Level
Parent–Child Relationship
Ordinal Position in the Family
Health
__________could leave a child prone to rickets, a disease that affects growth by causing shortening or bowing of long bones.
Lack of calcium
_________ can lead to visual impairments, poor healing, and poor bone growth
Lack of vitamins
development of chronic illness.
heart disease
cancer
cerebrovascular disease
diabetes mellitus
cirrhosis
and arteriosclerosis.
is a systematic statement of principles that provides a framework for explaining some phenomenon.
theory
is a skill or a growth responsibility arising at a particular time in an individual’s life, the achievement of which will provide a foundation for the accomplishment of future tasks.
developmental task
Austrian neurologist and the founder of psychoanalysis, offered the first real theory of personality development
Sigmund Freud
instincts
id
reality
ego
society
superego
“oral phase” because they are so interested in oral stimulation or pleasure during this time.
INFANT
an “anal phase” because during this time, children’s interests focus on the anal region as they begin toilet training. Elimination takes on new importance for them. Children find pleasure in both the retention of feces and defecation
TODDLER
children’s pleasure zone appears to shift from the anal to the genital area. Freud called this period the “phallic phase.” Masturbation is common during this phase. Children may also show exhibitionism, suggesting they hope this will lead to increased knowledge of the two sexes.
PRESCHOOLER
“latent phase,” a time in which children’s libido appears to be diverted into concrete thinking. He saw no developments as obvious as those in earlier periods appearing during this time.
SCHOOL-AGE CHILD
“genital phase.” Freudian theory considers the main events of this period to be the establishment of new sexual aims and the finding of new love objects.
ADOLESCENT
was trained in psychoanalytic theory but later developed his own theory of psychosocial development, a theory that stresses the importance of culture and society in development of personality
Erik Erikson (1902–1996)
The Infant-18 months
trust versus mistrust
The Toddler 18 months - 3yrs
autonomy versus shame or doubt.
The Preschooler 3-5 yrs
initiative versus guilt
The School-Age Child 5-13yrs
industry versus inferiority
The Adolescent 13-21 yrs
identity versus role confusion.
The Young Adult 21-39yrs
intimacy versus isolation
The Middle-Aged Adult 40-65yrs
generativity versus stagnation
The Older Adult 65-older
Integrity vs Despair
Provide a primary caregiver. Provide experiences that add to security, such as soft sounds and touch. Provide visual stimulation for active child involvement.
Developmental task is to form a sense of trust versus mistrust. Child learns to love and be loved.
Provide opportunities for decision making, such as offering choices of clothes to wear or toys to play with. Praise for the ability to make decisions rather than judging the correctness of any one decision.
Developmental task is to form a sense of autonomy versus shame. Child learns to be independent and make decisions for self.
Provide opportunities for exploring new places or activities involving water, clay, (for modeling), or finger paint.
Developmental task is to form a sense of initiative versus guilt. Child learns how to do things (basic problem solving) and that doing things is desirable.
Provide opportunities such as allowing the child to assemble and complete a short project so that the child feels rewarded for accomplishment.
Developmental task is to form a sense of industry versus inferiority. Child learns how to do things well.
Provide opportunities for an adolescent to discuss feelings about events important to him or her. Offer support and praise for decision making.
Developmental task is to form a sense of identity versus role confusion. Adolescents learn who they are and what kind of person they will be by adjusting to a new body image, seeking emancipation from parents, choosing a vocation, and determining a value system.
a Swiss psychologist, introduced concepts of cognitive development or the way children learn and think that have roots similar to those of both Freud and Erikson and yet separate from each
Jean Piaget (1896–1980)
Piaget defined four stages of cognitive development; within each stage are finer units or__________
schemas
THE SENSORIMOTOR STAGES
Ages: Birth to 2 Years
THE SENSORIMOTOR STAGES
Ages: Birth to 2 Years
THE PREOPERATIONAL STAGE
Ages: 2 - 7 Years
THE CONCRETE OPERATIONAL STAGE
Ages: 7 - 11 Years
THE FORMAL OPERATIONAL STAGE
Ages: 12 and Over
SIX SUB-STAGES OF THE SENSORIMOTOR PERIOD
Neonatal Reflex
Primary Circular Motion
Secondary Circular Motion
Coordination of Secondary Motions
Tertiary Circular Motion
Invention of New Means through Mental Combinations
Development of reflexes.
Stimuli are assimilated into beginning mental images.
Adaptation to their surroundings through assimilation and accommodation begins in this stage.
Neonatal Reflex
Hand-mouth and ear-eye coordination develop
Infants spend much time looking at objects and separating self from them
Beginning intention of behavior is present (the infant brings a thumb to mouth for a purpose: to suck in.
Primary Circular Motion
Infants learn to initiate, recognize, and repeat pleasurable experiences from the environment.
Memory traces are present; infants anticipate familiar events (a parent coming near him will pick him up.)
Secondary Circular Motion
Infants can plan activities to attain specific goals.
Perceives that others can cause activity and that activities of one’s own body are separate from activity of objects.
Can search for and retrieve toys from view.
Recognizes shapes and sizes of familiar objects.
Experiences separation anxiety.
Coordination of Secondary Motions
Child is able to experiment to discover new properties of objects and events.
Capable of space perception and time perception as well as permanence.
Objects outside self are understood as causes of actions.
Tertiary Circular Motion
Uses memory and imitation to act.
Can solve basic problems, foresee maneuvers that will succeed or fail.
Invention of New Means through Mental Combinations
characterized by the use of mental symbols, words, or pictures, which the child uses to represent something which is not physically present.
Symbolic functioning
characterized by a child focusing or attending to only one aspect of a stimulus or situation.
Centration
occurs when the child is able to believe in something without knowing why she or he believes it.
Intuitive thought
(inability to remember what he or she started to talk about so that at the end of a sentence the child is talking about another topic.)
Displays static thinking
a version of centration, this denotes a tendency of a child to only think from her or his own point of view.
Egocentrism
The child believes that inanimate objects have “lifelike” qualities and are capable of action.Concept of time is now, and concept of distance is only as far as he or she can see.
Unable to state cause-effect relationships, categories, or abstractions.
Animism
the ability to arrange objects in an order according to size, shape, or any other characteristic.
Seriation
the ability to name and identify sets of objects according to appearance, size or other characteristic, including the idea that one set of objects can include another.
Classification
where the child takes into account multiple aspects of a problem to solve it.
Decentering
where the child understands that numbers or objects can be changed, then returned to their original state.
Reversibility
understanding that quantity, length or number of items is unrelated to the arrangement or appearance of the object or items.
Conservation
the ability to view things from another’s perspective (even if they think incorrectly).
Elimination of Egocentrism
carried out on things
Concrete operations
carried out on ideas
formal operations
Thought becomes more symbolic; can arrive at answers mentally instead of through physical attempt. Comprehends simple abstractions but thinking is basically concrete and literal.
PREOPERATIONAL THOUGHT
systematic reasoning. Uses memory to learn broad concepts (fruit) and subgroups of concepts (apples, oranges). Classifications involve sorting objects according to attributes such as color; seriation, in which objects are ordered according to increasing or decreasing measures such as weight; multiplication, in which objects are simultaneously classified and serrated using weight.
Concrete operational thought
Can solve hypothetical problems with scientific reasoning; understands causality and can deal with the past, present, and future. Adult or mature thought. Good activity for this period: “talk time” to sort through attitudes and opinions.
Formal operational thought
psychologist, studied the reasoning ability of boys and, based on Piaget’s development stages, developed a theory on the way children gain knowledge of right and wrong or moral reasoning.
Lawrence Kohlberg (1927–1987),
is a skill that a child acquires within a specific time frame.
developmental milestone
ability to learn and solve problems
Cognitive Development
ability to interact with others, including helping themselves and self-control
Social and Emotional Development
ability to both understand and use language
Speech and Language Development
ability to use small muscles, specifically their hands and fingers
Fine Motor Skill Development
ability to use large muscles
Motor Skill Development
