Week 11: Learning, Reinforcement and Self-Management

Question 1

Learning and Modifying Work Behaviour

Behaviourists

Learning

Answer 1

• Behaviourists: study observable behaviours and consequences of behaviour and reject subjective human psychological states as topics for study
• Learning is a relatively permanent change in behaviour as a result of experience
  
  • Learning occurs in different ways
  • Managers who understand learning are well positioned to influence the willingness of their employees

Question 2

Learning Approaches: Classical Conditioning

Answer 2

• Classical conditioning: a form of learning through association that involves the manipulation of stimuli to influence behaviour
• Stimulus: something that incites action
• Learning through association
• Manipulation of stimulus to influence behaviour
• Associates a neutral stimulus with another stimulus that affects behaviour
• The former thus becomes conditioned stimulus which now draws forth the conditioned response

Question 3

Learning Approaches: Operant Conditioning

Answer 3

• The process of controlling behaviour through manipulating its consequences
• Learning through reinforcement: behaviour and consequence
• A-B-C contingencies
  
  • Antecedents -> Behaviour -> Consequences

Question 4

Differences between Classical and Operant Conditioning

Answer 4

• Classical conditioning
  
  • ​learnng occurs through conditioned stimuli
• Operant conditiong
  
  • ​learning occurs through consequences of behaviour

Question 5

Learning Approaches: Cognitive Learning

Answer 5

• Cognitive Learning: is learning achieved via reflection on the perceived relationship between events and individual goals and expectations
• Process motivation theories (chapter 3):
  
  • explain how and why people decide to do things

Question 6

Learning Approaches: Social Learning

Answer 6

• Learning through reciprocal interaction between people, behaviour, and environment
• Integrates operant and cognitive learning
• Behaviour learned through observation and imitating
• Proposed by Albert Bandura

Question 7

Self-efficacy and Social Learning

How to apply social learning

Answer 7

• Motivation to learn is related to self-efficacy
  
  • People with low self-efficacy require greater support and direction
• To apply social learning, managers should:
  
  • Identify appropriate job behaviours
  • Help employees select appropriate behavioural model
  • Structure situation to enhance learning
  • Provide appropriate rewards for behaviour
  • Maintain new learning

Question 8

People with high self-efficacy believe:

Answer 8

• They have the necessary ability for a given job
• They are capable of the effort required
• They are motivated to perform the required behaviour
• No outside events will hinder them from obtaining their desired performance level

Question 9

Reinforcement as a strategy to modify work behaviour

Law of effect

Extrinsic rewards

Organsiational behaviour modification

Answer 9

• Foundation for reinforcement is the law of effect: behaviour that results in a pleasant outcome is likely to be repeated while behaviour that results in an unpleasant outcome is not likely to be repeated
• Extrinsic rewards: positively value work outcomes the individual receives from some other person in the work setting
• Organisational Behaviour Modification (OBM): is the systematic reinforcement of desirable work behaviour and the non-reinforcement or punishment of unwanted work behaviour
  
  • Includes four basic reinforcement strategies:
    
    1. Positive reinforcement
    2. Negative reinforcement (or avoidance)
    3. Punishment
    4. Extinction

Question 10

Positive Reinforcement

Answer 10

• Positive reinforcement: Increases the likelihood of repeating desired behaviour in similar settings by administering positive consequences
• Maximising positive reinforcement
  
  • Law of contingent reinforcement: the view that for a reward to have maximum reinforcing value, it must be delivered only if the desired behaviour is exhibited
  • Law of immediate reinforcement: states the more immediate the delivery of a reward after the occurrence of a desirable behaviour, the greater the reinforcing effect on behaviour
  • Shaping: is the creation of a new behaviour by the positive reinforcement of successive approximations to the desired behaviour
  • Successive approximation: is when someone acts in a way that gets closer and closer to the desired behaviour in order to receive a reward

Question 11

Scheduling of Positive Reinforcement

Answer 11

• Continuous reinforcement: is a reinforcement schedule that administers a reward each time a desired behaviour occurs
  
  • Draws forth a desired behaviour more quickly than does intermittent reinforcement, but continuous reinforcement is more costly in the consumption of rewards and more easily extinguished when reinforcement is no longer present
• Intermittent reinforcement: is a reinforcement schedule that rewards behaviour only periodically
  
  • This behaviour lasts longer when reinforcement is discontinued than does behaviour acquired under continuous reinforcement (more resistant to extinction)

Question 12

Guidelines for Allocating Extrinsic Rewards

Contrived rewards

Natural rewards

Answer 12

• Clearly identify desired behaviour
• Maintain inventory of positive rewards
• Recognise individual perceptions of value
• Clearly define criteria for reward
• Allocate contingently and immediately
• Schedule allocation appropriately

Contrived rewards: are direct costs such as bonuses, promotions or trips

Natural rewards: have no direct costs such as smiles, recognition or feedback

Question 13

Negative Reinforcement

Answer 13

• Negative reinforcement: The withdrawal of negative consequences, which increases the likelihood of the behaviour being repeated
• Also called ‘avoidance’
• Seeks to encourage desirable behaviour

Question 14

Punishment

Guidelines for using punishment

Answer 14

• Punishment is the administration of negative consequences (or withdrawal of positive consequences), which tends to discourage undesired behaviour
• Major reservations about using punishment as motivational tool as it can lead to low satisfaction as well as low performance
• Guidelines for using Punishment
  
  • Identify undesirable behaviour
  • Identify desirable behaviour
  • Punish in private
  • Follow laws of contingent and immediate reinforcement
  • Ensure punishment matches behaviour

Question 15

Extinction

Answer 15

• Withdrawal of reinforcing consequences for a given behaviour
  
  • i.e., ignoring the behaviour and not providing the response the person wants decreases the frequency of, or weakens, the behaviour
• Positive reinforcement seeks to establish and maintain desirable work behaviour, extinction is to weaken and eliminate undesirable behaviour

Question 16

Caveats of OBM

Cognitive evaluation theory

Reverse incentive effect

Self-determination theory

Answer 16

• Culture-bound?
• Studies have shown that extrinsic rewards can hinder intrinsic motivation
• Do incentives actually work?
  
  • Cognitive evaluation theory: explains the effects of extrinsic rewards on intrinsic motivation. When people are offered a large payment for engaging in an activity they infer the activity must be difficult, tedious, risky or unpleasant in some way, so their enjoyment of the task is decreased
  • Reverse incentive effect: is when people are offered a large incentive or reward for doing a task, they will judge the task to be more difficult, more boring or more unpleasant than when a small (or no) reward is offered
  • Self-determination theory: is a theory of human motivation, development and wellness. The theory focuses on types rather than just amount, of motivation paying particular attention to autonomous (intrinsic) motivation and amotivation (lack of motivation) as predictors of performance and wellbeing outcomes

Question 17

Social Learning and Behavioural Self-Management

Behaviour focused strategies

Cognitive-focused strategies

Answer 17

look at notes

Behaviour-focused strategies:

• Self-setting goals
• Managing cues
• Rehearsing
• Self-observing
• Self-rewarding
• Self-punishing (generally not very effective)

Cognitive-focused strategies:

• Building natural rewards into tasks, results for these activities cause you to feel:
  
  • a sense of competence
  • a sense of self-control
  • a sense of purpose
• Focusing thinking on natural rewards
• Establishing constructive throught patterns through managing your:
  
  • beliefs and assumptions
  • menatl imagery
  • internal self-talk

Question 18

Intrapersonal conflict:

Answer 18

is conflict that occurs within the individual as a result of actual or perceived pressures from incompatible goals or expectations

Question 19

Motivational implications of pay

Maslow’s Heirarchy of needs

McClelland’s theory of needs

Herzberg’s two factor theory

Answer 19

• Maslow’s hierarchy of needs
  
  • Pay is a unique reward that can satisfy many different needs
  • It is used directly to satisfy lower-order needs (need for food and shelter) and is of symbolic of importance in satisfying higher-order needs (ego fulfillment)
• McClelland’s theory of needs
  
  • Pay is a important source of performance feedback for high-need achievers
  • Can be attractive for those with a high need for affiliation when offered as a group bonus and is valued by the high need-for-power person as a means of ‘buying’ prestige or control over others
• Herzberg’s two factor theory
  
  • Pay in the form of base wage or salary can prevent the dissatisfaction but cannot lead to motivation (although, merit pay rises given as special rewards for jobs done well can cause increased satisfaction and motivation)
• See pic for
  
  • Equity theory
  • Expectancy theory
  • Reinforcement theory

Question 20

Merit Pay

Answer 20

• Merit pay is a compensation system that bases an individual’s salary or wage increase on a measure of that person’s performance accomplishments during a specified time period (i.e., pay is contingent on performance)

Question 21

Creative Pay Practices

Answer 21

Question 22

Organisational Learning

Learning Through Experience

Answer 22

• Organisational Learning
  
  • Organisational learning: the process of acquiring or developing new knowledge that modifies or changes behaviour, thereby improving organisational performance
  • The belief that organisations can be transformed by improving processes and techniques so as to enrich relationships among members
• Learning Through Experience
  
  • Most tacit knowledge and skills are acquired through experience and observation
  • Experiential learning steps:
    
    • Engagement with the environment
    • Reflecting on experience
    • Experimenting

Question 23

Learning Organisations

Answer 23

• Managers can create a learning organisation by:
  
  • building a shared vision
  • inspiring commitment
  • consulting for consensus
  • employing systems thinking
  • encouraging continual renewal
  • creating self-directed teams of employees
• Learning organisation preconditions:
  
  • Trust
    
    • Alignment of goals
    • Supportive behaviour and integrity
  • Commitment
    
    • Intellectual and emotional attachment
  • Perceived organisational support
    
    • Relationship building

Question 24

Teaching Organisations

Answer 24

• The teaching organisation: Aims to pass on learning experiences to others, and so allow the organisation to achieve and maintain success
• Leaders in teaching organisations share knowledge with staff to quickly and accurately develop a knowledge base
• More agile and responsive to environmental changes