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BIO130 > Week 1 Readings > Flashcards

Week 1 Readings Flashcards

1
Q

give 4 ways in with cells differ from each other

A

size, shape, chemical requirements, and function

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1
Q

cell size

A

eg a bacterial cell (lactobacillus) is a few micrometers in length. a frog egg has a diameter of about 1mm

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2
Q

shape

A
  • nerve cells are extended and branched to transmit electrical signals
  • paramecium is shaped like a submarine and covered with cilia, whose coordinated beating sweeps the cell forward
  • cell in surface layer of a plant is squat and immobile, surrounded by box of cellulose with outer waterproof coating
  • macrophage constantly changing shapes to engulf pathogens
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3
Q

chemical requirements

A
  • some require oxygen to live, for others it is deadly
  • some cells consume little more than co2, sunlight, and water, other need a complex mixture of molecules produced by other cells
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4
Q

function

A
  • some cells operate as factories optimised for the production of particular substances
  • others (eg muscle cells) are engines that burn fuel to do mechanical work
  • some cells can generate an electric current (eg electrolytes of electric eel)
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5
Q

cell specialisation

A
  • some cells become so specialised that they cease to proliferate
  • this does not occur in single celled organisms
  • in multicellular organisms, division of labour allows for efficiency
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6
Q

what do all living cells share?

A
  • a similar basic chemistry; composed of the same sorts of molecules which participate in the same types of chemical reactions
  • genetic information carried in genes
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7
Q

define a living cell

A

a self-replicating collection of catalysts

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8
Q

viruses and reproduction

A
  • do not have ability to reproduce by their own efforts
  • parasitise reproductive machinery of the cells they invade to make copies of themselves
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9
Q

where have all living cells evolved from?

A

the same ancestral cell, which existed between 3.5 and 3.8 billion years ago
- mutation
- sexual reproduction
- natural selection

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10
Q

3 major domains of the tree of life

A

eukaryotes (smallest domain), bacteria, and archaea

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11
Q

how is the tree of life organised?

A

analysis of the genome

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12
Q

which cells are larger; eukaryotes or prokaryotes?

A

eukaryotic cells, and also have much larger genomes

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13
Q

most of the earth’s biomass is stored in

A

plants

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14
Q

which domain of life is most diverse and why?

A

bacteria
- small
- have been around for longest
- reproduce very quickly (so evolve fast)

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15
Q

draw and label a bacterial cell

A
  • cytoplasm
  • plasma membrane
  • outer membrane
  • cell wall
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16
Q

which domain is most poorly understood?

A

archaea

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17
Q

describe archaea

A
  • differ from bacteria by chemistry of their cell walls, types of lipids that make up the membrane, and range of chemical reactions they can carry out
  • archaea live everywhere, including extreme environments
  • predominant form of life in soil and seawater
  • play a major role in recycling nitrogen and carbon
  • genomes closely related to eukaryotes
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18
Q

nucleus

A
  • information store of cell
  • enclosed in 2 concentric membranes (nuclear envelope)
  • contains molecules of DNA
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19
Q

mitochondria

A
  • enclosed in 2 membranes, with inner membrane invaginated
  • generate chemical energy for the cell via cell respiration
  • harness energy from oxidation of food molecules to produce ATP
  • contain own DNA and reproduce by dividing
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20
Q

chloroplasts

A
  • two surrounding membranes and stacks of membranes containing chlorophyll (green pigment)
  • carry out photosynthesis
  • contain own DNA and reproduce by dividing
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21
Q

endoplasmic reticulum

A
  • irregular maze of interconnected spaces enclosed by a membrane
  • site where most cell-membrane components, as well as materials destined for export from the cell are made
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22
Q

Golgi apparatus

A
  • stacks of flattened, membrane-enclosed sacs
  • modifies and packages molecules made in the ER that are destined to be secreted from the cell or transported to another cell compartment
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23
Q

lysosomes

A

small organelles in which intracellular digestion occurs, releasing nutrients from ingested food particles into the cytosol and breaking down unwanted molecules for recycling within cell or excretion

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24
Q

peroxisomes

A

small, membrane-enclosed vesicles that provide an environment for a variety of reactions in which hydrogen peroxide is used to inactivate toxic molecules

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25
Q

transport vesicles

A

ferry materials between one membrane-enclosed organelle and another

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26
Q

draw diagram for continual exchange of materials in a cell

A

pg 24

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27
Q

endocytosis

A

portions of plasma membrane tuck inward and pinch off to form vesicles that carry material captured from the external medium into the cell

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28
Q

exocytosis

A

vesicles from inside the cell fuse with the plasma membrane and release their contents into the external medium

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29
Q

cytosol

A

concentrated aqueous gel of large and small molecules; site of many chemical reactions

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30
Q

cytoskeleton

A
  • responsible for directed cell movements
  • composed of three major filament types; actin filaments, intermediate filaments, and microtubules
  • role in cell division
31
Q

actin filaments

A

thinnest filaments; particularly abundant in muscle cells, where they serve as a centre part pf the machinery responsible for muscle contraction

32
Q

microtubules

A

thickest filaments; form of minute hollow tubes; help pull chromosomes apart during mitosis

33
Q

intermediate filaments

A

thickness between actin filaments and microtubules; serve to strengthen most animal cells.

34
Q

motor proteins

A

use energy stored in molecules of ATP to move along cytoskeleton filaments

35
Q

protozoans

A

free-living, motile, unicellular eukaryotes

36
Q

Didinium

A
  • large, carnivorous protozoan with a diameter of 150 micrometers
  • uses beating cilia to swim at high speed
  • when it encounters prey (usually another protozoan) it releases numerous small, paralysing darts from its snout
  • attaches to and devours the other cell, inverting like a hollow ball to engulf its victim
37
Q

model organisms

A

representatives species studied by biologists

38
Q

E. coli

A
  • small, rod shaped
  • lives harmlessly in the gut of humans and other vertebrates, but will also grow and reproduce in simple lab nutrient broths
39
Q

what knowledge has come from studying E.Coli?

A
  • how cells regulate gene expression
  • how cells replicate their DNA and how they make proteins from DNA
  • ‘recombinant DNA’ revolution, enabling us to manipulate genes and DNA in the laboratory
  • harnessed as a biological factory for producing large quantities of therapeutic proteins, including insulin
40
Q

S. Cervisiae

A
  • small, single-celled fungus that is more closely related to animals than plants
  • rigid cell wall, relatively immobile, many organelles (nucleus, GA, ER, mito) but no chloroplasts
  • can grow and divide almost as rapidly as bacteria
  • carries out basic tasks that every eukaryotic cell must perform and can even mate w opposite sex
41
Q

what knowledge has come from studying Baker’s yeast?

A
  • genetics of sexual reproduction
  • cell division cycle
42
Q

arabidopsis thaliana

A
  • model plant
  • can be grown indoors in large numbers
  • thousands of offspring within 8-10 weeks
43
Q

what knowledge has come from studying arabidopsis thaliana?

A
  • understanding of the mechanisms that enable plants to grow toward sunlight, to flower in spring, and to coordinate development with season cycle
  • insights into the development and physiology of crop plants
44
Q

C. Elegans

A
  • nematode worm
  • develops with clockwork precision from a fertilised egg cell into an adult that has exactly 959 body cells, an unusual degree of regularity for an animal
  • understanding of sequence of events of development
  • understanding of apoptosis (programmed cell death for disposal of surplus cells)
45
Q

Drosophila melanogaster

A
  • fruit fly
  • study of animal genetics
  • genes for development similar to those of humans; human development and basis of genetic disease
  • genetic analysis provided definitive proof that genes are carried on chromosomes
  • shown how DNA directs development of zygote into adult
  • mutants w body parts used to characterise genes needed to make normal adult
46
Q

zebrafish

A
  • developmental processes, particularly in vertebrates
  • easily bred and maintained in lab
  • transparent for first 2 weeks of life, allowing observation of how cells behave during development
  • insights into development of heart and blood vessels
47
Q

mouse

A
  • mammalian genetics, development, immunology, cell biology
  • possible to breed mice with deliberately engineered mutations in any specific gene, or with artificially constructed genes introduced into them
  • test the function of any gene and determine how it works
48
Q

why is it that many human cells can be studied in vitro?

A

when grown in culture, they continue to display the differentiated properties appropriate to their origin

49
Q

organoids

A
  • used to study developmental processes
  • certain human embryo cells can be coaxed into differentiating into multiple cell types, which can self-assemble into organ like structures that closely resemble a normal organ
50
Q

four types of weak interactions that help bring molecules together in cells

A
  • electrostatic attraction: between oppositely charged molecules
  • van der Waals: when two atoms approach each other
  • hydrophobic force: generated by a pushing of non polar surfaces out of the hydrogen-bonded water network, where they would otherwise physically interfere with the highly favourable interactions between water molecules
51
Q

application of hydrophobic interaction

A

promote molecular interactions in building cell membranes, constructed from lipid molecules with long hydrocarbon tails

52
Q

nucleotides

A

nitrogen-containing ring linked to a five-carbon sugar that has a phosphate group attached to it

53
Q

bases

A

under acidic conditions, can bind an H+ and thereby increase the concentration of OH- ions in aqueous solution

54
Q

pyrimidines

A

cytosine, thymine uracil
derived from a six-membered pyrimidine ring

55
Q

purines

A

guanine and adenine
bear a second, five-membered ring fused to the six-membered ring

56
Q

base plus sugar (no phosphate group)

A

nucleoside

57
Q

ATP

A

three phosphates linked in series by two phosphoanhydride bonds
rupture of these bonds releases free energy

58
Q

structure of nucleic acids

A

long polymers in which nucleotide subunits are linked by covalent phosphodiester bonds between the phosphate group of one nucleotide and a hydroxyl group of the next

59
Q

how are nucleic acid chains synthesised?

A

from energy-rich nucleotide triphosphate by a condensation reaction that releases pyrophosphate

60
Q

distinguish between the roles of DNA and RNA

A
  • DNA is more stable due to double helix so acts as a long-term repository for hereditary information
  • RNA serves as more transient carriers of molecular instructions
61
Q

draw the 5 bases

A
62
Q

base/nucleoside names for the 5 bases

A

adenine - adenosine
guanine - guanosine
cytosine - cytidine
uracil - uridine
thymine - thymidine

63
Q

AMP

A

adenosine monophosphate

64
Q

dAMP

A

deoxyadenosine monophosphate

65
Q

UDP

A

uridine diphosphate

66
Q

how are phosphates usually bound sugars?

A

joined to the C-5 hydroxyl of the sugar

67
Q

3 functions of nucleotides and their derivatives

A
  • carry chemical energy in their easily hydrolysed phosphoanhydride bonds
  • combine with other groups to form coenzymes
  • used as small intracellular signalling molecules in the cell
68
Q

between which carbons do phosphodiester bonds take place?

A

5’ and 3’ carbon atoms of adjacent sugar rings

69
Q

3’ end

A

ends with OH (hydroxyl)

70
Q

5’ end

A

ends with phosphate

71
Q

A pairs with

A

T or U

72
Q

G pairs with

A

C

73
Q

describe the structure of the double helix

A
  • strands antiparallel to each other (oriented with opposite polarities)
  • anti-parallel sugar-phosphate sytands twist around each other to forma. double helix containing 10 base pairs per helical turn
74
Q

why does twisting of the double helix take place?

A

renders conformation of DNA’s helical structure energetically favourable

BIO130 (3 decks)

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