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Foundations of Medicine > Week 1 Cell structure, Thermodynamic > Flashcards

Week 1 Cell structure, Thermodynamic Flashcards

1
Q

Difference between Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic cells

A

Prokaryotic cell: Bacteria

  • Lacks a nuclear membrane - No mitochondria - No membrane-bound organelle

Eukaryotic cell - Human cells

  • Multicellular animal and plant - Nucleus with membrane - Membrane-bound organelles
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2
Q

Explain stem cells

A

stem cells are cells that can differentiate into many (multipotent) or any (pluripotent) cell types of the body

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3
Q

Why are stem cells of interest in medical science?

A

Now allow stem cells to be used in the treatment of certain diseases including some cancers

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4
Q

Explain cell differentiation

A
  • Cells pass through a series of changes during development
  • undifferentiated stem cells divide and give rise to daughter cells.

Differences in GENE EXPRESSION AND LOCAL CELLULAR ENVIRONMENT cause daughter cells to develop into different cell types.

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5
Q

What allows daughter cells to develop into different cell types?

A

Differences in gene expression and the local cellular environment.

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6
Q

What is apoptosis?

A

Apoptosis is programmed cell death. This is a normal process - apoptosis and cell proliferation are intimately coupled

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7
Q

What is necrosis?

A

Necrosis describes the untimely death of cells in response to injury or infection.

This is not a normal process

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8
Q

What is Cell proliferation?

A

Cell proliferation is the process by which a cell grows and divides to produce two daughter cells.

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9
Q

Describe cancer cells

A

Cancer cells - Divide without any control

  • Fail to coordinate with normal cells
  • Fail to differentiate into specialized cells
  • Displace and replace the normal cells if not stopped.
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10
Q

Describe the Cell membrane/ Plasma membrane/ plasmalemma

A

Comprises a double layer of lipids with attached phosphate groups = phospholipid bilayer.

Selective permeability/barrier

proteins embedded in membrane acting as receptors

signalling molecules in the fluid around cells (extracellular fluid)

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11
Q

What is oxidative phosphorylation?

A

Oxidative phosphorylation

When other ATP producing reactions occurs as a result of the transfer of electrons from NADH, FADH2 or 02 by a series of electron carriers

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12
Q

Describe the nucleus in eukaryotes

A

The nucleus

Contains DNA, nucleoprotein and some RNA

The nucleus is enclosed in the nuclear membrane

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13
Q

Describe a prokaryotic cell

A

Prokaryotic cell - Bacteria

Lacks a nuclear membrane

no mitochondria

no membrane-bound organelles

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14
Q

Describe a eukaryotic cell

A

Eukaryotic cell - Human cell

Nucleus with membrane

membrane bound organelles

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15
Q

Describe the smooth endoplasmic reticulum

A

smooth endoplasmic reticulum

no ribosomes attached

associated with lipid and steroid hormone production

associated with metabolism of toxin

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16
Q

Describe rough endoplasmic reticulum

A

Rough endoplasmic reticulum

Modifies proteins

has ribosomes attached

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17
Q

What is the function of the Golgi apparatus?

A

Golgi apparatus

packages up protein for transport out of the cell

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18
Q

Describe the mitochondria

A

Mitochondria

Bound by a phospholipid bilayer

The outer membrane contains pores

The inner membrane has cristae

The matrix contains most enzymes required for metabolising food molecules.

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19
Q

Describe lysosomes

A

Lysosomes

membrane-bound vesicles containing enzymes

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20
Q

What is the function of the cytoskeleton

A

Cytoskeleton

Supports and maintins cell shape

Holds organelles in position

helps move organelles around the cell

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21
Q

Name the surface projections supported by the cytoskeleton

A

projections supported by the cytoskeleton

Cilia and flagella

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22
Q

What are the major ELEMENTS used to construct human biomolecules?

A

major ELEMENTS used to construct human biomolecules

Hydrogen (H), Oxygen (O), Carbon (C), Nitrogen (N)

Carbon is the most versatile

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23
Q

Describe how functional groups define the biomolecular function

A

Groups of elements bonded to Carbon atoms (C) form function groups:

Hydroxyl

Aldehyde

Keto

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24
Q

Describe how the function of biomolecules also depend on the configuration of groups on the molecule

A

Configuration - the fixed arrangement of atoms in a molecule

Lots of biomolecules contain a double bond between C atoms, which is rigid conformations

2 distinct configurations - trans and ci

Can only interconvert between the two by breaking and reforming bonds

25
Q

What are the 5 Chemical reactions of life

A

Redox reactions

Making and breaking C-C bonds

internal rearrangements

group transfer

condensation and hydrolysis reactions

26
Q

Give an example of a redox reaction

A

Glucose -

NADH+ reduced to NAD

27
Q

Give an example of making/breaking c-c bonds

A

Cleavage of glucose in the glycolysis pathway

28
Q

Give an example of internal rearrangements

A

Glycolysis, rearrangement of the conformation of G6P (Glucose 6-phosphate) occurs before sugar is split

29
Q

Give an example of group transfers

A

Glycolysis, phosphoryl group is transferred from ATP to f6p ( Fructose 6-phosphate)

30
Q

Give an example of condensation and hydrolysis

A

Glucose polymers

Condensation chemical process 2 molecules are joined together to make a larger, more complex, molecule, with the loss of water.

Hydrolysis is the opposite to condensation. A large molecule is split into smaller sections by breaking a bond, adding -H to one section and -OH to the other.

31
Q

Name the 3 classes of lipids

A
  1. triglycerides
  2. phospholipids
  3. steroids
32
Q

Describe the structure of nucleic acids

A

Polymers of nucleotide monomers linked by 3’, 5’ phosphodiester bonds

formed of a base, sugar and phosphate

polymer - substance or material consisting of very large molecules, or macromolecules, composed of many repeating subunits.

monomer - a molecule that forms the basic unit for polymers, which are the building blocks of proteins

33
Q

Name the pyrimidines

A

Cytosine

Thymine

34
Q

Name the purines

A

Adenine

Guanine

35
Q

Describe the structure of lipids

A

Fatty acids and glycerol

Fatty acids are long chains of carbon and hydrogen bonds

36
Q

Describe water as a solvent

A

Water is a polar molecule =

charge within the molecule is not evenly distributed.

Giving slight +ve charge at the (H) hydrogen end and slight -ve charge on the (O) oxygen end.

Polarity allows hydrogen bonding

37
Q

What is a hydrogen bond?

A

A weak bond between two molecules

resulting from an electrostatic attraction between a proton in one molecule and an electronegative atom in the other

38
Q

Describe hydrophilic molecules and give examples

A

Can form hydrogen bonds

Then they dissolve the water - water (H) hydrogen bonding and Solute - Solute (H) hydrogen bonding is replaces with more energetically favourable

Solute - Water (H) hydrogen bonding

example - Ketone

39
Q

Describe hydrophobic molecules

A

Do not dissolve readily in water

Arrange themselves in water to minimise disruption of hydrogen bonding among surrounding water molecules.

40
Q

Define PH

A

The measure of hydrogen ion concentration

41
Q

Describe weak acids and bases

A

Partially dissociated, can act as a buffer

42
Q

What is a buffer

A

Weak acids or bases that can react with strong acids or bases to prevent sharp, sudden changes in PH

43
Q

What can we use to calculate how the PH of a physiological solution will respond to changes in the conjugate (coupled, connected, or related.) acid or base

A

Henderson - Hasslebach equation

PH alpha [buffer] / [H-buffer]

44
Q

What is metabolism catabolism?

A

Break down of complex molecules

45
Q

What is metabolism anabolism?

A

Build-up (synthesis) of complex molecules

46
Q

How is catabolism and anabolism interdependent?

A

catabolism and anabolism work together with the energy from catabolism providing the energy for anabolism

47
Q

Describe metabolic pathways

A

Each step is catalysed by enzymes

spontaneous reactions move towards equilibrium

Enzymes function or selectively alter the rate of particular parts of the metabolic pathways.

48
Q

Describe ATP hydrolysis

A

ATP hydrolysis:

hydrolyses ATP to ADP and phosphate group

Released free energy which is harnessed to drive thermodynamically unfavourable reactions.

through copping of catabolic thermodynamically favourable reactions.

49
Q

What is a functional group?

A

Functional groups are specific groupings of atoms within molecules that have their own characteristic properties, regardless of the other atoms present in a molecule.

Common examples are

alcohols, amines, carboxylic acids, ketones, and ethers.

50
Q

Plasma pH is proportional to carbonic acid concentration divided by bicarbonate ion concentration

Select one:

True

False

A

Plasma pH is proportional to bicarbonate ion concentration divided by carbonic acid concentration

(or CO2 levels as remember we can substitute CO2 for carbonic acid and get the same effect in terms of movement of pH)

51
Q

describe - aetiology of a disease

A

The aetiology of a disease describes its causative factors. The process by which a disease develops is the pathogenesis.

52
Q

saturated fatty acid

A

saturated fatty acid has no double bonds, all the bonds between carbon atoms are single bonds

53
Q

Chylomicrons are important structures for

A

for carrying lipid around the blood. Proteins are generally water soluble so are readily transported in plasma. Lipids are not water soluble and thus need to be packaged into chylomicrons to ease transport in the blood.

54
Q

amphipathic nature of proteins increases/decreases their water solubility

A

most proteins are amphipathic meaning they have a water loving (hydrophilic) and a water repellent (hydrophobic) part. By orientating themselves such that the hydrophobic part gets buried deep within the protein molecule and the hydrophilic part is on the outside exposed to the aqueous environment, the molecule becomes water soluble.

55
Q

can Multipotent stem cells can differentiate into any cell type in the body?

A

NO

multipotent stem cells can differentiate in many, but not all, cell types.

Pluripotent stem cells can form any cell in the body. Adult stem cells are multipotent. Embryonic stem cells are pluripotent.

56
Q

What are the main buffering agents in plasma?

A

bicarbonate ions are the main buffering agents in plasma.

Phosphate ions buffer intracellular fluid.

57
Q

The conversion of NAD+ to NADH is an example of

A

is an example of reduction. NAD+ gains an electron to become NADH (remember OIL RIG where Reduction Is Gain (of electrons)). However NAD+ is an oxidising agent in that it oxidises another molecule at the same time as it is itself reduced to NADH.

58
Q

Can Radiolabelled albumin can be used to measure extracellular fluid volume?

A

NO

albumin is a plasma protein and is thus confined to the plasma compartment. It cannot move into the interstitial fluid compartment. Because extracellular fluid (ECF) is a product of plasma volume and interstitial fluid (ISF) volume you need a marker that can move freely between plasma and ISF, but not intracellular fluid, in order to be able to measure ECF volume. Sucrose or radiolabelled Na+ would do the job nicely.

Foundations of Medicine (12 decks)

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