Week 1 Flashcards
Our understanding of the functional features of the human cerebral cortex has been informed by experimentation using the …
scientific method
Our understanding of the functional features of the human cerebral cortex has been informed by case studies of cortical _ and/or _ of cortical development
damage; abnormalities
Our understanding of the functional features of the human cerebral cortex has been informed by models of cortical function inspired by _ and _
technology and mathematics
Mathematical methodologies such as _ theory and other items are applied to understanding complex cognitive systems, creating challenges for understanding the structural and functional features of neurocortex
graph theory
Technology for neuropsychology includes near-infrared encephalography, MRI, and _
fMRI or functional magnetic resonance imaging
fMRI, or functional magnetic resonance imaging, uses _ to track _ in the brain. This is used to determine activated regions used during tests, etc.
measures brain activity by detecting changes associated with blood flow; the greater the flow, the greater the activity
_ _ _ (MRI) is a medical imaging technique used in radiology to form pictures of the anatomy and the physiological processes of the body. MRI scanners use strong magnetic fields, magnetic field gradients, and radio waves to generate images of the organs in the body.
magnetic resonance imaging
_-__ (NIRS) is a noninvasive neuroimaging tool for measuring evoked functional changes in brain oxygenation.
near-infrared spectroscopy
EEG, or _ can be used to evaluate the functionality of cortical connections and obtain information on regional cortical activity.
electroencephalography
The human cerebral cortex enables increased _ for acquiring, processing, storing, and communicating information
efficiency
The human cerebral cortex enables _ information processing, enabling one to:
link facts, concepts, and skills
perceive and associate
solve problems
associative information processing
The human cerebral cortex enables _ _development and practice
behavioural skill development and practice
The ability to transmit/receive information to/from others is _
communication
The human cerebral cortex enables - behaviour
visually-guided
The evolution of bipedalism (freeing forelimbs), resulting in frugivory (increased need for improved visual detection/recognition) and increased foraging efficacy predicted, according to Whishaw (2003), the evolution of the …
(primate) frontal cortex
_ and _ (2017) suggested particle complexity change exists, and cortical columns define social class size of primates and number of individuals one can manage, i.e., village and network sizes, etc.
Dunbar and Shultz (2017)
Smaers et al. (2011) hypotheized that the primary factor underlying the evolution of primate brain architecture is _ hemispherical prefrontal _
LEFT hemispherical prefrontal HYPERSCALING (language)
Humans are the extreme of a left prefrontal ape specialization in relative _ to _ _ volume
white to grey matter volume
The evolution of brain irrigation of the modern human was predated by that of _ _ (30,000 years ago/30 Ky)
Homo sapiens
Homo sapiens (30 Ky) evolved after the … from 200 - 120 Ky
Archaic Homo sapiens
Archaic Homo sapiens (200 - 120 Ky) evolved after…
Homo erectus
Homo erectus evolved from primates, i.e., _ _
Paranthropus robustus
The size of the _ _ increased much faster than expected from brain size in 12 species of our human ancestors over a period of 3 million years
carotid canals
The carotid canal is the passage way in the temporal bone through which the internal carotid artery enters the middle cranial fossa from the neck. The canal starts on the inferior surface of the temporal bone at the external opening of the carotid canal (also referred to as the carotid foramen). Its development enabled the…
evolution of humanity as thoughtful beings
While brain size was increasing 3.5 times, blood flow rate for humans by way of the carotid canals increased _ times, from about 1.2 ml per _ to 7 ml per _
6 times; ml per second
The increase of brain size and blood flow rate indicates that our brains are six times as hungry for _ as those of our ancestors
oxygen
The increase of brain size and blood flow rate indicates that our brains are six times as hungry for oxygen as those of our ancestors, presumably because our _ _ is greater, and therefore more energy-intensive
cognitive ability
The human body allocates roughly _% of its total resting metabolic rate to the brain, compared with 8-10% in other primates, and a mere 3-5% in other mammals
20-25%
Delivering nutrients and oxygen to brain tissue, integral to the evolutionary process for cortical area change, is referred to as _ _
brain irrigation
Areas of the cortex which stimulation creates motor and/or sensory ability is stipulated as motor, olfactory, auditory, visual, or somatosensory. The one cortex area that is not a part of those abilities is the uncommitted cortex, a.k.a. the _ cortex
association
The association cortex increased in humans in surface area relative to the cortical areas for motor or sensory abilities, predicting greater - and ‘higher’ cognitive abilities
problem-solving
The areas for motor and sensory abilities in the cortex are the: motor olfactory visual auditory _
somatosensory
De Loof (2004) argued that “the best problem solvers have better chances for being rewarded with a higher level of _, and by faster growth and reproductive advantages”
contentment
Hills (2005) hypothesized that cortical mechanisms supporting area-restricted foraging were exapted to provide the infrastructure for other forms of - cognition
goal-oriented
Hills (2005) would argue that if one finds food the first time, one is likely to ensure food is found again, which supports goal-directed _ in other aspects of survival
thoughts
The human cerebral cortex is composed of a 2 - 4 mm thick laminated _, consisting of up to layers of neurons
sheet
Laminations in the cortex are also known as _
layers
The reason human cerebral cortex isn’t so large (roughly 2,500 cm^2) is because of heavy _, compared to other animals
folds
90% of the human cortex is composed of up to 6 layers, referred to as _
isocortex
Composed of roughly 3 - 4 neural layers, the paleocortex or _ predated those of humans
archicortex
According to _ (2009), there are approximately 1.6 x 10^10 cortical neurons
Herculano-Houzel
According to Herculano-Houzel (2009), there are approximately 1.25 x 10^14 cortical _ in the human brain
synapses
According to Herculano-Houzel (2009), there are an extraordinary amount of possible cortical “Hebbian” circuits, which is defined as _, exceeding the known amount of numbers known by humans (millions of decimals)
hyperastronomical
Isotropic _ : consisten layers that create evenly distributed samples from which to study brain matter, used by Herculano-Houzel (2009)
isotropic hyphenation
Although some researchers suggest that neural thickness is set across species whereas neural spatial area differs, _ suggests that is not the case
Herculano-Houzel (2017)
The human brain is composed of 86 billion _, and weighs about 1500 g
neurons
The chimpanzee brain diverged from the human brain about _ million years ago (MYA)
5-7
The chimpanzee brain is composed of _ billion neurons, and weighs approximately 380 g
28 billion
The macaque brain is composed of 6 billion neurons and weighs 87 g, and is roughly _ times smaller than the human brain
17
The chimpanzee brain is roughly _ times smaller than the human brain
4
The marmoset brain is roughly _ times smaller than the human brain
190
The mouse brain is roughly _ times smaller than the human brain
3800
The human cortex contains more _ (16 billion) than any other species, which is responsible for our capabilities and abilities
neurons
Neocortex arises from the dorsal _, and is composed by different types of neurons that are generated after the exponential expansion of neural stem cells
telencephalon
Neural stem cells are also known as _ cells (NE)
neuroepithelial cells
neuroepithelial cells (neural stem cells) later differentiate into _ _ cells (RG)
radial glial cells (RG)
Rakic (1988) proposed that the cerebral cortex develops during embryogenesis as an array of interacting cortical columns, known as _ _s
radial units
Rakic (1988) proposed that the cerebral cortex develops during embryogenesis as an array of interacting cortical columns, known as radial units each of which originates from a _ stem cell layer
transient
Rakic (1988) proposed that the cerebral cortex develops during embryogenesis as an array of interacting cortical columns, known as radial units each of which originates from a transient stem cell layer called the _ zone
ventricular zone
The ventricular zone contains neural stem cells known as _ _ cells
radial glial
Evolutionary processes resulted in increased numbers of _, thus increasing the cortical surface area, but not its thickness
columns
Kaas (2012) argued that additional evolved forms of cortical organization include columns, modules, and _
domains
The _ becomes the cerebrum and basal ganglia and (I forget) of the brain
telencephalon
The ventricular zone and the - zone are associated with the development of cortical cells (i.e., neuroepithelial cells).
sub-ventricular zone
Working cortical cells are -, meaning they are not capable of regeneration once becoming neurons
post-myotic
Ventricles are associated with increasing cortical _, and therefore surface area
cortical columns
The _ hypothesis suggests that the brain increases in surface area, but not thickness
columnar hypothesis
Kaas argues that…
“one of the defining features of _ is that it consists of layers and various sublayers of neurons specialized for different steps in processing.
neocortex
Kaas argues that “neurons in radial (vertical) arrays across the layers are more densely interconnected than…”
neurons ALONG the layers
Kaas argues that…“neurons in narrow _ arrays share many response properties”
vertical
Kaas argues that…“neurons in vertical arrays share many response properties, especially the location of the _ fields of neurons on the sensory _ surface.”
receptor; receptor
Kaas argues that…“the arrangement of the neurons into … has great functional importance, and it is likely responsible for the impressive flexibility and powers of neocortex.”
neurons in narrow vertical arrays share many response properties
The creation of cerebral cortex is known as _
ontogenesis
Cortical size, lamination (layers), and _ are largely genetically regulated
connectivity
The number of successive - cycles that generate cortical cells can account for the enormous expansion of human cortical surface
cell-division cycles
Ontogenesis of the cerebral cortex in humans is far superior to that of other primates due to the … of cortical neurogenesis in primates, with 100 days for humans, 60 days for macaque monkeys, and 6 days in mice)
greatly extended duration of cortical neurogenesis
Ontogenesis of the cerebral cortex takes place in _ developmental zones
four
Ontogenesis of the cerebral cortex takes place in four developmental zones: the ventricular subventricular intermediate ?
marginal
Each development zone of the cerebral cortex is defined according to the _, behaviour, and fate of its constituent cells
form
i.e., form = function
All neurons an d_ of the central nervous system are derived from the four developmental zones of the cerebral cortex
macroglia
e.g., microglia, astrocytes, oligodendrocytes, etc.
Ontogenesis of cortical neurons arise from radial neuronal organization in six major layers, composed of earlier and later-born neurons positioned according to … (Arai and Pierani, 2014)
an inside-out sequence
i.e., layer 6 —> 1
Neuroepithelial cells are multipotent _ cells, characterized by self-renewing capacity, and potential to give rise to neurons, astrocytes, and oligodendrocytes
progenitor
Neuroepithelial cells are multipotent progenitor cells, characterized by - capacity, and potential to give rise to neurons, astrocytes, and oligodendrocytes
self-renewing
NE cells are highly _, meaning that each _ is highly visible/definable
polarized; pole
Neuroepithelial cells (NE) are arranged in a _ layer that forms the ventricular zone (VZ), along the bottom layer
single layer
Neuroepithelial cells (NE) are arranged in a single layer that forms the ventricular zone (VZ), along the bottom layer, known as layer _
6
Following the onset of cortical neurogenesis, a ‘secondary’ proliferative region, called the - _, is formed from NE cells
sub-ventricular zone
The sub-ventricular zone is further divided into a zone that is _, and one that is _
inner; outer
The _ is a transient layer with a diverse population of neurons that forms between neuroepithelium/neural epithelial cells
preplate
The preplate predates the _ plate, which is the final plate formed in corticogenesis
cortical plate
The cortical plate includes cortical layers _ - _, since the subplate is found at the ventricular zone
2-6 (ventricular zone is 1)
The subventricular zone appears as a distinctive proliferative layer before? after? the emergence of the cortical plate (CP)
before
The _ _ is the heterogeneous compartment that lies between the proliferative layers and the postmigratory cells above the subventricular zone
intermediate zone
The intermediate zone contains radially and tangentially migrating cells, and a thickening layer of extrinsic axons that eventually constitutes the _ matter
white matter
The _ is a transient layer that is located directly below the cortical plate
subplate
In humans, preplate cells also contribute to the subplate, but its substantial _ process at later stages probably includes the addition of later-born neurons
thickening
Bystron et al. (2008)’s research informed us about how the cortex develops, according to zones and _
plates
The _ mater is the closest meninges layer to the cortical cells, i.e., layer 6
pia mater
The pial surface of the dorsal _/area is close to the pia mater layer of the cerebrospinal fluid
dorsal telencephalon (back or top cerebrum area)
The _ contains the marginal zone and the Cajal-Retzius cells
reelin
The _ contains the basement membrane (don’t be fooled, it ain’t the very bottom), and is the uppermost layer of the cortex
laminin (“layer”)
The cortical plate is located _ the Cajal-Retzius cells
below
The cortical plate is located _ the subplate cells
above
The intermediate zone, containing radial glia fibres, is located _ the subplate cells
below
The ventricular zone contains _ cells
germinal cells, or progenitor cells
Ontogenesis of cortical neurons involves the _ organization of cerebral cortex
tangential
Tangential organization of the cerebral cortex predicted cortical patterning as results from key changes during _
evolution
The _ neocortical territories in primate and humans were greatly expanded, devoted to higher-order cortical processing
prefrontal
Higher-order cortical processing is both associative and _
integrative
Cellular organization appears as an extension of the cortical surface, with a lot of areas dedicated to higher-order structure, in a columnar format. This explains the _ organization of cerebral cortex
tangential organization
Two major types of cells in the neocortex are neurons and _
glia
_ _ support vegetative physiology and provide the infrastructure for the blood-brain barrier
glial cells
_ are the information processing components of the cortex
neurons
T/F: there are roughly 1.5 times more glia than neurons
false, there are roughly equal numbers
The most numerous glial cell type in cortical _ matter is the astrocyte
grey
The most numerous glial cell type in cortical grey matter is the _
astrocyte
_ _ are astrocyte foot processes that serve as the Blood-Brain Barrier by making tight arterial junctions
Glia Limitans (you shall not pass!)
Astrocytes supply _ to neurons
nutriments
Astrocytes remove excess _
neurotransmitters
Astrocytes helps _ of neurons during brain development
migration
Astrocytes create tight junctions that wrap around _ cells that form cerebral _ in the brain
arterial cell, arteries
Astrocytes prevent leaking of material from arteries into _ tissues
interstitial
_ are found mainly adjacent to neuronal axons
oligodendrocytes
Oligodendrocytes provide ‘central’ _ of axons
myelination
Oligodendrocytes are capable of myelinating up to 60 axons in the _
CNS
Schwann cells myelinate a single axons in the _
PNS
Oligodendrocytes are found in _ matter
white
_ are small cells of mesenchymal origin
microglia
mesencymal layer is from the mesodermal and _ germ layers during neonatal development
ectodermal germ layer
_ account for roughly _% of cortical cells
10-15
Microglia have an elongated _ with relatively little cytoplasm
nucleus
Microglia respond to tissue damage by transforming into large, amoeboid _ cells
phagocytic
Microglia act as the first and main form of active _ _ in the CNS
immune defense
Microglia is implicated as both the degenerative and restorative processes of _ neurological diseases
neurological
Issues with microglia is associated with MS and
Rasmussen’s encephalitis
_ _ is a rare inflammatory neurological disease, characterized by frequent and severe seizures, loss of motor skills and speech, and hemiparesis
Rasmussen’s encephalitis
Weakness on one side of the body is called _
hemiparesis
_ is inflammation of the brain
encephalitis
_ _ is a chronic illness involving your CNS; the immune system attacks myelin, which is the protective layer around nerve fibres
Multiple Sclerosis
_ cells form the epithelial lining of the ventricles and central canal of the spinal cord
ependymal cells
Ependymal cells produce _ _
cerebrospinal fluid
_ cells assist in the circulation of cerebrospinal fluid
ependymal cells
The main “output” neurons of the cerebral cortex are the _ cells
pyramidal
The apical (at the apex) _ of pyramidal cells are studded with spines as preferential sites for synaptic context
dendrites
Most pyramidal cells have long _ protecting to other cortical areas or subcortical sites
long axons
- cells: neurons with radial ascending processes that contact the pial surface
Cajal/Retzius cells
Cajal-Retzius cells are neuronswith a horizontal axon plexus located in the deep _ zone
marginal
_ cells are giant pyramidal cells in the primary motor cortex
Betz cells
Betz cells’ axons form the _ _
corticospinal pathway
Betz cells’ axons form the corticospinal pathway, composed of layers _ to _
3 to 5, up to the pia
_ cells travel a long distance to reach their target, most notably the motor neurons of the spinal cord and the brainstem
Betz
Betz cells have large-calibre _, with axonal diameters that can exceed 100 micrometers
large calibre fibres
Pyramidal cells have a large, _-polar cortical neuron characterized by conic-shaped soma, single axon, and a large apical dendrite with dendritic spines
multipolar
Pyramidal cells are characterized by conic-shaped _
soma
Pyramidal cells have a single _, and a large apical dendrite with dendritic spines
axon
The primary excitatory neuron of the mammalian prefrontal cortex and corticospinal tract is the _ cell
pyramidal
Main neurotransmitters of the pyramidal cell are _ (excitatory) and GABA (inhibitory)
glutamate
Main neurotransmitters of the pyramidal cell gamma aminobutyric acid, a.k.a. … (inhibitory)
GABA
_ cells (aka granular cells) are the main interneurons of the cerebral cortex, with short axons that do not leave the cortex
stellate
Stellate cells are small _-polar neurons in a wide variety of shapes
multipolar
Cortical spiny stellate cells are found in the internal granular layer, i.e., layer 4c of the _ _ cortex
primary visual cortex (small cells for small body parts)
Stellate cells receive excitatory synaptic fibres from the _ and process feed-forward excitation to layers 2 and 3 of the visual cortex
thalamus
Stellate cells receive excitatory synaptic fibres from the _ and process feed-forward excitation to layers 2 and 3 of the visual cortex, and then to _ cells
pyramidal
Cortical spiny stellate cells have a _ firing pattern
‘regular’
_ excitations allows one neuron to relay information to its neighbour, with long chains that can be used to propagate information through the NS, and convergence allows a neuron to receive input from many neurons in a network
feed-forward excitation
_ in feed-forward excitation allows a neuron to receive input from many neurons in a network
convergence
Cells of _ are small polygonal neurons with a few short dendrites that synapse with pyramidal neurons
Cells of Martinotti
- _ Horizontal cells are small spindle shaped neurons oriented parallel to the cortical surface, and found only in layer 6
Cajal-Retzius Horizontal cells
- Horizontal cells disappear after birth
Cajal-Retzius Horizontal Cells
_ cells are spindle-shaped cells oriented at right angles to cortical surface, with functions similar to pyramidal cells
fusiform cells
_: a study of microanatomy of cells, tissues, and organs as seen through a microscope, examining the correlation between structure and function
histology
_ cells are small, found in the retinal
Cajal
Drawings by _ are of pen and ink based on Golgi stains from a microscope (histology)
Retzius
Neurons come in two main forms: _ and _
excitatory and inhibitory
Pyramidal neurons are named for their prominent apical _, which typically points superficially
dendrite
Customarily, a neuron belongs to the layer in which its _ _ is sited
cell body
Inhibitory neurons have several other names, including local circuit neurons, or _
interneurons
Despite being in a minority (20%), _ //_ _ _ (one of the names) are more diverse in their morphology (and likely why they have so many names!)
inhibitory neurons/interneurons/local circuit neurons
Some forms of _ //_ _ _ (one of the names) attracted familiar names, such as basket cells and chandelier cells, on account of their characteristic axonal ramifications
inhibitory neurons/interneuron/local circuit neurons
Inhibitory neurons have the other names because their axons are purely ‘intrinsic’, meaning they do not enter _ matter, and make only short-range, local connections
they don’t enter white matter (no need to go so dang fast, or far)
Segregation of _ and _ _ in the neocortex is the result of evolutionary refinement that optimizes communication speed and total demand for brain wiring (axonal mass) and connectivity
white and grey matter
_ of grey and white matter would require considerably more wiring
intermixing
Each _ of isocortex differs in cell type, cell size, and population density
layer
Plexiform or molecular layer, i.e., layer _ is the most superificial layer/anterior layer (next to the meninges)
layer 1 (I have to make sure that I go from top to bottom, and not bottom to top…check my other questions!)
Layer _ contains few scatter neurons and consists mainly of extensions of apical dendritic tufts of pyramidal neurons and horizontally-oriented axons, in addition to glia
layer 1
Some - and spiny stellate neurons can be found in layer 1
CAjal-Retzius
Inputs to apical tufts in layer 1 are crucial for cortical feedback involved in _ learning and attention
associative
Layer 1 across the entire cerebral cortex receives substantial input from ‘matrix’ or M-type neurons in the _
thalamus
Core or C-type thalamus neurons project to cortex layer _
4
Sparse nuclei in layer 1 can be seen belonging to _ cells
glial
Lots of dendritic and axonal synapses are found in layer _
1
The external granular layer, or layer _ has a dense population of small pyramidal neurons and numerous stellate neurons, and contains axonal and dendritic synapses
layer 2
The external pyramidal cell layer, or layer _, contains predominantly small and medium-size pyramidal neurons as well as non-pyramidal neurons with vertically-oriented intracortical axons
layer 3
Layers 1 through 3 are the main target of interhemispheric/between hemispheres cortical _FFERENTS
afferents (coming in)
Layer 3 is the principal source of cortico-cortical _
efferents
_ cells are also present in layer 3
Martinotti
The internal granular layer, or Layer _, consists of densely packed stellate and pyramidal neurons
layer 4 (IV)
The main target of thalamo-cortical afferents from thalamus type C neurons as well as intra-hemispheric cortico-cortical afferents is layer _
4 (internal granular layer)
Layer _, aka the internal pyramidal/ganglionic layer, contains large pyramidal neurons which give rise to axons leaving the cortex and running down to subcortical structures such as the basal ganglia
layer 5
Layer 5, aka the internal pyramidal/ganglionic layer, contains large pyramidal neurons which give rise to axons leaving the cortex and running down to subcortical structures such as the _ _
basal ganglia
The primary motor cortex layer V contains _ cells, whose axons travel through the internal capsule, brain stem and spinal cord
Betz cells
The primary motor cortex layer V contains Betz cells, whose axons travel through the internal capsule, brain stem and spinal cord, forming the _ tract
corticospinal tract
The main pathway for voluntary motor control is the _ tract
corticospinal tract
Betz axons travel through the _ _, brain stem and spinal cord, forming the corticospinal tract
internal capsule
Layer _, aka the polymorphic or multiform cell layer, contains few large pyramidal neurons and many small spindle-like pyramidal neurons, and other neurons of all shapes
layer 6
Layer 6 sends efferent fibres to the _, thereby establishing a very price reciprocal interconnection between the cortex and the _
thalamus
Layer 6 neurons from a cortical _ connect with thalamus neurons that provide input to the same cortical _
column
Neurons that connect with the thalamus and layer 6 of the neocortex have connections that are both _ and _
excitatory and inhibitory
Neurons send _ fibres to neurons in the thalamus, and also send collaterals to the thalamic reticular nucleus that _ these same thalamus neurons or ones spatially adjacent to them
neurons send excitatory, whereas thalamus reticular neuron inhibits them
