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Nelly > Week 1 > Flashcards

Week 1 Flashcards

1
Q

Our understanding of the functional features of the human cerebral cortex has been informed by experimentation using the …

A

scientific method

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2
Q

Our understanding of the functional features of the human cerebral cortex has been informed by case studies of cortical _ and/or _ of cortical development

A

damage; abnormalities

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3
Q

Our understanding of the functional features of the human cerebral cortex has been informed by models of cortical function inspired by _ and _

A

technology and mathematics

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4
Q

Mathematical methodologies such as _ theory and other items are applied to understanding complex cognitive systems, creating challenges for understanding the structural and functional features of neurocortex

A

graph theory

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5
Q

Technology for neuropsychology includes near-infrared encephalography, MRI, and _

A

fMRI or functional magnetic resonance imaging

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6
Q

fMRI, or functional magnetic resonance imaging, uses _ to track _ in the brain. This is used to determine activated regions used during tests, etc.

A

measures brain activity by detecting changes associated with blood flow; the greater the flow, the greater the activity

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7
Q

_ _ _ (MRI) is a medical imaging technique used in radiology to form pictures of the anatomy and the physiological processes of the body. MRI scanners use strong magnetic fields, magnetic field gradients, and radio waves to generate images of the organs in the body.

A

magnetic resonance imaging

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8
Q

_-__ (NIRS) is a noninvasive neuroimaging tool for measuring evoked functional changes in brain oxygenation.

A

near-infrared spectroscopy

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9
Q

EEG, or _ can be used to evaluate the functionality of cortical connections and obtain information on regional cortical activity.

A

electroencephalography

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10
Q

The human cerebral cortex enables increased _ for acquiring, processing, storing, and communicating information

A

efficiency

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11
Q

The human cerebral cortex enables _ information processing, enabling one to:
link facts, concepts, and skills
perceive and associate
solve problems

A

associative information processing

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12
Q

The human cerebral cortex enables _ _development and practice

A

behavioural skill development and practice

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13
Q

The ability to transmit/receive information to/from others is _

A

communication

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14
Q

The human cerebral cortex enables - behaviour

A

visually-guided

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15
Q

The evolution of bipedalism (freeing forelimbs), resulting in frugivory (increased need for improved visual detection/recognition) and increased foraging efficacy predicted, according to Whishaw (2003), the evolution of the …

A

(primate) frontal cortex

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16
Q

_ and _ (2017) suggested particle complexity change exists, and cortical columns define social class size of primates and number of individuals one can manage, i.e., village and network sizes, etc.

A

Dunbar and Shultz (2017)

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17
Q

Smaers et al. (2011) hypotheized that the primary factor underlying the evolution of primate brain architecture is _ hemispherical prefrontal _

A

LEFT hemispherical prefrontal HYPERSCALING (language)

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18
Q

Humans are the extreme of a left prefrontal ape specialization in relative _ to _ _ volume

A

white to grey matter volume

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19
Q

The evolution of brain irrigation of the modern human was predated by that of _ _ (30,000 years ago/30 Ky)

A

Homo sapiens

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20
Q

Homo sapiens (30 Ky) evolved after the … from 200 - 120 Ky

A

Archaic Homo sapiens

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21
Q

Archaic Homo sapiens (200 - 120 Ky) evolved after…

A

Homo erectus

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22
Q

Homo erectus evolved from primates, i.e., _ _

A

Paranthropus robustus

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23
Q

The size of the _ _ increased much faster than expected from brain size in 12 species of our human ancestors over a period of 3 million years

A

carotid canals

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24
Q

The carotid canal is the passage way in the temporal bone through which the internal carotid artery enters the middle cranial fossa from the neck. The canal starts on the inferior surface of the temporal bone at the external opening of the carotid canal (also referred to as the carotid foramen). Its development enabled the…

A

evolution of humanity as thoughtful beings

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25
Q

While brain size was increasing 3.5 times, blood flow rate for humans by way of the carotid canals increased _ times, from about 1.2 ml per _ to 7 ml per _

A

6 times; ml per second

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26
Q

The increase of brain size and blood flow rate indicates that our brains are six times as hungry for _ as those of our ancestors

A

oxygen

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27
Q

The increase of brain size and blood flow rate indicates that our brains are six times as hungry for oxygen as those of our ancestors, presumably because our _ _ is greater, and therefore more energy-intensive

A

cognitive ability

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28
Q

The human body allocates roughly _% of its total resting metabolic rate to the brain, compared with 8-10% in other primates, and a mere 3-5% in other mammals

A

20-25%

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29
Q

Delivering nutrients and oxygen to brain tissue, integral to the evolutionary process for cortical area change, is referred to as _ _

A

brain irrigation

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30
Q

Areas of the cortex which stimulation creates motor and/or sensory ability is stipulated as motor, olfactory, auditory, visual, or somatosensory. The one cortex area that is not a part of those abilities is the uncommitted cortex, a.k.a. the _ cortex

A

association

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31
Q

The association cortex increased in humans in surface area relative to the cortical areas for motor or sensory abilities, predicting greater - and ‘higher’ cognitive abilities

A

problem-solving

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32
Q 
The areas for motor and sensory abilities in the cortex are the: 
motor
olfactory
visual
auditory
_
A

somatosensory

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33
Q

De Loof (2004) argued that “the best problem solvers have better chances for being rewarded with a higher level of _, and by faster growth and reproductive advantages”

A

contentment

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34
Q

Hills (2005) hypothesized that cortical mechanisms supporting area-restricted foraging were exapted to provide the infrastructure for other forms of - cognition

A

goal-oriented

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35
Q

Hills (2005) would argue that if one finds food the first time, one is likely to ensure food is found again, which supports goal-directed _ in other aspects of survival

A

thoughts

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36
Q

The human cerebral cortex is composed of a 2 - 4 mm thick laminated _, consisting of up to layers of neurons

A

sheet

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37
Q

Laminations in the cortex are also known as _

A

layers

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38
Q

The reason human cerebral cortex isn’t so large (roughly 2,500 cm^2) is because of heavy _, compared to other animals

A

folds

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39
Q

90% of the human cortex is composed of up to 6 layers, referred to as _

A

isocortex

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40
Q

Composed of roughly 3 - 4 neural layers, the paleocortex or _ predated those of humans

A

archicortex

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41
Q

According to _ (2009), there are approximately 1.6 x 10^10 cortical neurons

A

Herculano-Houzel

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42
Q

According to Herculano-Houzel (2009), there are approximately 1.25 x 10^14 cortical _ in the human brain

A

synapses

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43
Q

According to Herculano-Houzel (2009), there are an extraordinary amount of possible cortical “Hebbian” circuits, which is defined as _, exceeding the known amount of numbers known by humans (millions of decimals)

A

hyperastronomical

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44
Q

Isotropic _ : consisten layers that create evenly distributed samples from which to study brain matter, used by Herculano-Houzel (2009)

A

isotropic hyphenation

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45
Q

Although some researchers suggest that neural thickness is set across species whereas neural spatial area differs, _ suggests that is not the case

A

Herculano-Houzel (2017)

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46
Q

The human brain is composed of 86 billion _, and weighs about 1500 g

A

neurons

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47
Q

The chimpanzee brain diverged from the human brain about _ million years ago (MYA)

A

5-7

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48
Q

The chimpanzee brain is composed of _ billion neurons, and weighs approximately 380 g

A

28 billion

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49
Q

The macaque brain is composed of 6 billion neurons and weighs 87 g, and is roughly _ times smaller than the human brain

A

17

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50
Q

The chimpanzee brain is roughly _ times smaller than the human brain

A

4

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51
Q

The marmoset brain is roughly _ times smaller than the human brain

A

190

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52
Q

The mouse brain is roughly _ times smaller than the human brain

A

3800

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53
Q

The human cortex contains more _ (16 billion) than any other species, which is responsible for our capabilities and abilities

A

neurons

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54
Q

Neocortex arises from the dorsal _, and is composed by different types of neurons that are generated after the exponential expansion of neural stem cells

A

telencephalon

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55
Q

Neural stem cells are also known as _ cells (NE)

A

neuroepithelial cells

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56
Q

neuroepithelial cells (neural stem cells) later differentiate into _ _ cells (RG)

A

radial glial cells (RG)

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57
Q

Rakic (1988) proposed that the cerebral cortex develops during embryogenesis as an array of interacting cortical columns, known as _ _s

A

radial units

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58
Q

Rakic (1988) proposed that the cerebral cortex develops during embryogenesis as an array of interacting cortical columns, known as radial units each of which originates from a _ stem cell layer

A

transient

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59
Q

Rakic (1988) proposed that the cerebral cortex develops during embryogenesis as an array of interacting cortical columns, known as radial units each of which originates from a transient stem cell layer called the _ zone

A

ventricular zone

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60
Q

The ventricular zone contains neural stem cells known as _ _ cells

A

radial glial

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61
Q

Evolutionary processes resulted in increased numbers of _, thus increasing the cortical surface area, but not its thickness

A

columns

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62
Q

Kaas (2012) argued that additional evolved forms of cortical organization include columns, modules, and _

A

domains

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63
Q

The _ becomes the cerebrum and basal ganglia and (I forget) of the brain

A

telencephalon

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64
Q

The ventricular zone and the - zone are associated with the development of cortical cells (i.e., neuroepithelial cells).

A

sub-ventricular zone

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65
Q

Working cortical cells are -, meaning they are not capable of regeneration once becoming neurons

A

post-myotic

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66
Q

Ventricles are associated with increasing cortical _, and therefore surface area

A

cortical columns

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67
Q

The _ hypothesis suggests that the brain increases in surface area, but not thickness

A

columnar hypothesis

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68
Q

Kaas argues that…
“one of the defining features of _ is that it consists of layers and various sublayers of neurons specialized for different steps in processing.

A

neocortex

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69
Q

Kaas argues that “neurons in radial (vertical) arrays across the layers are more densely interconnected than…”

A

neurons ALONG the layers

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70
Q

Kaas argues that…“neurons in narrow _ arrays share many response properties”

A

vertical

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71
Q

Kaas argues that…“neurons in vertical arrays share many response properties, especially the location of the _ fields of neurons on the sensory _ surface.”

A

receptor; receptor

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72
Q

Kaas argues that…“the arrangement of the neurons into … has great functional importance, and it is likely responsible for the impressive flexibility and powers of neocortex.”

A

neurons in narrow vertical arrays share many response properties

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73
Q

The creation of cerebral cortex is known as _

A

ontogenesis

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74
Q

Cortical size, lamination (layers), and _ are largely genetically regulated

A

connectivity

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75
Q

The number of successive - cycles that generate cortical cells can account for the enormous expansion of human cortical surface

A

cell-division cycles

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76
Q

Ontogenesis of the cerebral cortex in humans is far superior to that of other primates due to the … of cortical neurogenesis in primates, with 100 days for humans, 60 days for macaque monkeys, and 6 days in mice)

A

greatly extended duration of cortical neurogenesis

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77
Q

Ontogenesis of the cerebral cortex takes place in _ developmental zones

A

four

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78
Q 
Ontogenesis of the cerebral cortex takes place in four developmental zones:
the ventricular
subventricular
intermediate 
?
A

marginal

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79
Q

Each development zone of the cerebral cortex is defined according to the _, behaviour, and fate of its constituent cells

A

form

i.e., form = function

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80
Q

All neurons an d_ of the central nervous system are derived from the four developmental zones of the cerebral cortex

A

macroglia

e.g., microglia, astrocytes, oligodendrocytes, etc.

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81
Q

Ontogenesis of cortical neurons arise from radial neuronal organization in six major layers, composed of earlier and later-born neurons positioned according to … (Arai and Pierani, 2014)

A

an inside-out sequence

i.e., layer 6 —> 1

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82
Q

Neuroepithelial cells are multipotent _ cells, characterized by self-renewing capacity, and potential to give rise to neurons, astrocytes, and oligodendrocytes

A

progenitor

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83
Q

Neuroepithelial cells are multipotent progenitor cells, characterized by - capacity, and potential to give rise to neurons, astrocytes, and oligodendrocytes

A

self-renewing

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84
Q

NE cells are highly _, meaning that each _ is highly visible/definable

A

polarized; pole

85
Q

Neuroepithelial cells (NE) are arranged in a _ layer that forms the ventricular zone (VZ), along the bottom layer

A

single layer

86
Q

Neuroepithelial cells (NE) are arranged in a single layer that forms the ventricular zone (VZ), along the bottom layer, known as layer _

A

6

87
Q

Following the onset of cortical neurogenesis, a ‘secondary’ proliferative region, called the - _, is formed from NE cells

A

sub-ventricular zone

88
Q

The sub-ventricular zone is further divided into a zone that is _, and one that is _

A

inner; outer

89
Q

The _ is a transient layer with a diverse population of neurons that forms between neuroepithelium/neural epithelial cells

A

preplate

90
Q

The preplate predates the _ plate, which is the final plate formed in corticogenesis

A

cortical plate

91
Q

The cortical plate includes cortical layers _ - _, since the subplate is found at the ventricular zone

A

2-6 (ventricular zone is 1)

92
Q

The subventricular zone appears as a distinctive proliferative layer before? after? the emergence of the cortical plate (CP)

A

before

93
Q

The _ _ is the heterogeneous compartment that lies between the proliferative layers and the postmigratory cells above the subventricular zone

A

intermediate zone

94
Q

The intermediate zone contains radially and tangentially migrating cells, and a thickening layer of extrinsic axons that eventually constitutes the _ matter

A

white matter

95
Q

The _ is a transient layer that is located directly below the cortical plate

A

subplate

96
Q

In humans, preplate cells also contribute to the subplate, but its substantial _ process at later stages probably includes the addition of later-born neurons

A

thickening

97
Q

Bystron et al. (2008)’s research informed us about how the cortex develops, according to zones and _

A

plates

98
Q

The _ mater is the closest meninges layer to the cortical cells, i.e., layer 6

A

pia mater

99
Q

The pial surface of the dorsal _/area is close to the pia mater layer of the cerebrospinal fluid

A

dorsal telencephalon (back or top cerebrum area)

100
Q

The _ contains the marginal zone and the Cajal-Retzius cells

A

reelin

101
Q

The _ contains the basement membrane (don’t be fooled, it ain’t the very bottom), and is the uppermost layer of the cortex

A

laminin (“layer”)

102
Q

The cortical plate is located _ the Cajal-Retzius cells

A

below

103
Q

The cortical plate is located _ the subplate cells

A

above

104
Q

The intermediate zone, containing radial glia fibres, is located _ the subplate cells

A

below

105
Q

The ventricular zone contains _ cells

A

germinal cells, or progenitor cells

106
Q

Ontogenesis of cortical neurons involves the _ organization of cerebral cortex

A

tangential

107
Q

Tangential organization of the cerebral cortex predicted cortical patterning as results from key changes during _

A

evolution

108
Q

The _ neocortical territories in primate and humans were greatly expanded, devoted to higher-order cortical processing

A

prefrontal

109
Q

Higher-order cortical processing is both associative and _

A

integrative

110
Q

Cellular organization appears as an extension of the cortical surface, with a lot of areas dedicated to higher-order structure, in a columnar format. This explains the _ organization of cerebral cortex

A

tangential organization

111
Q

Two major types of cells in the neocortex are neurons and _

A

glia

112
Q

_ _ support vegetative physiology and provide the infrastructure for the blood-brain barrier

A

glial cells

113
Q

_ are the information processing components of the cortex

A

neurons

114
Q

T/F: there are roughly 1.5 times more glia than neurons

A

false, there are roughly equal numbers

115
Q

The most numerous glial cell type in cortical _ matter is the astrocyte

A

grey

116
Q

The most numerous glial cell type in cortical grey matter is the _

A

astrocyte

117
Q

_ _ are astrocyte foot processes that serve as the Blood-Brain Barrier by making tight arterial junctions

A 
Glia Limitans 
(you shall not pass!)
118
Q

Astrocytes supply _ to neurons

A

nutriments

119
Q

Astrocytes remove excess _

A

neurotransmitters

120
Q

Astrocytes helps _ of neurons during brain development

A

migration

121
Q

Astrocytes create tight junctions that wrap around _ cells that form cerebral _ in the brain

A

arterial cell, arteries

122
Q

Astrocytes prevent leaking of material from arteries into _ tissues

A

interstitial

123
Q

_ are found mainly adjacent to neuronal axons

A

oligodendrocytes

124
Q

Oligodendrocytes provide ‘central’ _ of axons

A

myelination

125
Q

Oligodendrocytes are capable of myelinating up to 60 axons in the _

A

CNS

126
Q

Schwann cells myelinate a single axons in the _

A

PNS

127
Q

Oligodendrocytes are found in _ matter

A

white

128
Q

_ are small cells of mesenchymal origin

A

microglia

129
Q

mesencymal layer is from the mesodermal and _ germ layers during neonatal development

A

ectodermal germ layer

130
Q

_ account for roughly _% of cortical cells

A

10-15

131
Q

Microglia have an elongated _ with relatively little cytoplasm

A

nucleus

132
Q

Microglia respond to tissue damage by transforming into large, amoeboid _ cells

A

phagocytic

133
Q

Microglia act as the first and main form of active _ _ in the CNS

A

immune defense

134
Q

Microglia is implicated as both the degenerative and restorative processes of _ neurological diseases

A

neurological

135
Q

Issues with microglia is associated with MS and

A

Rasmussen’s encephalitis

136
Q

_ _ is a rare inflammatory neurological disease, characterized by frequent and severe seizures, loss of motor skills and speech, and hemiparesis

A

Rasmussen’s encephalitis

137
Q

Weakness on one side of the body is called _

A

hemiparesis

138
Q

_ is inflammation of the brain

A

encephalitis

139
Q

_ _ is a chronic illness involving your CNS; the immune system attacks myelin, which is the protective layer around nerve fibres

A

Multiple Sclerosis

140
Q

_ cells form the epithelial lining of the ventricles and central canal of the spinal cord

A

ependymal cells

141
Q

Ependymal cells produce _ _

A

cerebrospinal fluid

142
Q

_ cells assist in the circulation of cerebrospinal fluid

A

ependymal cells

143
Q

The main “output” neurons of the cerebral cortex are the _ cells

A

pyramidal

144
Q

The apical (at the apex) _ of pyramidal cells are studded with spines as preferential sites for synaptic context

A

dendrites

145
Q

Most pyramidal cells have long _ protecting to other cortical areas or subcortical sites

A

long axons

146
Q

- cells: neurons with radial ascending processes that contact the pial surface

A

Cajal/Retzius cells

147
Q

Cajal-Retzius cells are neuronswith a horizontal axon plexus located in the deep _ zone

A

marginal

148
Q

_ cells are giant pyramidal cells in the primary motor cortex

A

Betz cells

149
Q

Betz cells’ axons form the _ _

A

corticospinal pathway

150
Q

Betz cells’ axons form the corticospinal pathway, composed of layers _ to _

A

3 to 5, up to the pia

151
Q

_ cells travel a long distance to reach their target, most notably the motor neurons of the spinal cord and the brainstem

A

Betz

152
Q

Betz cells have large-calibre _, with axonal diameters that can exceed 100 micrometers

A

large calibre fibres

153
Q

Pyramidal cells have a large, _-polar cortical neuron characterized by conic-shaped soma, single axon, and a large apical dendrite with dendritic spines

A

multipolar

154
Q

Pyramidal cells are characterized by conic-shaped _

A

soma

155
Q

Pyramidal cells have a single _, and a large apical dendrite with dendritic spines

A

axon

156
Q

The primary excitatory neuron of the mammalian prefrontal cortex and corticospinal tract is the _ cell

A

pyramidal

157
Q

Main neurotransmitters of the pyramidal cell are _ (excitatory) and GABA (inhibitory)

A

glutamate

158
Q

Main neurotransmitters of the pyramidal cell gamma aminobutyric acid, a.k.a. … (inhibitory)

A

GABA

159
Q

_ cells (aka granular cells) are the main interneurons of the cerebral cortex, with short axons that do not leave the cortex

A

stellate

160
Q

Stellate cells are small _-polar neurons in a wide variety of shapes

A

multipolar

161
Q

Cortical spiny stellate cells are found in the internal granular layer, i.e., layer 4c of the _ _ cortex

A

primary visual cortex (small cells for small body parts)

162
Q

Stellate cells receive excitatory synaptic fibres from the _ and process feed-forward excitation to layers 2 and 3 of the visual cortex

A

thalamus

163
Q

Stellate cells receive excitatory synaptic fibres from the _ and process feed-forward excitation to layers 2 and 3 of the visual cortex, and then to _ cells

A

pyramidal

164
Q

Cortical spiny stellate cells have a _ firing pattern

A

‘regular’

165
Q

_ excitations allows one neuron to relay information to its neighbour, with long chains that can be used to propagate information through the NS, and convergence allows a neuron to receive input from many neurons in a network

A

feed-forward excitation

166
Q

_ in feed-forward excitation allows a neuron to receive input from many neurons in a network

A

convergence

167
Q

Cells of _ are small polygonal neurons with a few short dendrites that synapse with pyramidal neurons

A

Cells of Martinotti

168
Q

- _ Horizontal cells are small spindle shaped neurons oriented parallel to the cortical surface, and found only in layer 6

A

Cajal-Retzius Horizontal cells

169
Q

- Horizontal cells disappear after birth

A

Cajal-Retzius Horizontal Cells

170
Q

_ cells are spindle-shaped cells oriented at right angles to cortical surface, with functions similar to pyramidal cells

A

fusiform cells

171
Q

_: a study of microanatomy of cells, tissues, and organs as seen through a microscope, examining the correlation between structure and function

A

histology

172
Q

_ cells are small, found in the retinal

A

Cajal

173
Q

Drawings by _ are of pen and ink based on Golgi stains from a microscope (histology)

A

Retzius

174
Q

Neurons come in two main forms: _ and _

A

excitatory and inhibitory

175
Q

Pyramidal neurons are named for their prominent apical _, which typically points superficially

A

dendrite

176
Q

Customarily, a neuron belongs to the layer in which its _ _ is sited

A

cell body

177
Q

Inhibitory neurons have several other names, including local circuit neurons, or _

A

interneurons

178
Q

Despite being in a minority (20%), _ //_ _ _ (one of the names) are more diverse in their morphology (and likely why they have so many names!)

A

inhibitory neurons/interneurons/local circuit neurons

179
Q

Some forms of _ //_ _ _ (one of the names) attracted familiar names, such as basket cells and chandelier cells, on account of their characteristic axonal ramifications

A

inhibitory neurons/interneuron/local circuit neurons

180
Q

Inhibitory neurons have the other names because their axons are purely ‘intrinsic’, meaning they do not enter _ matter, and make only short-range, local connections

A

they don’t enter white matter (no need to go so dang fast, or far)

181
Q

Segregation of _ and _ _ in the neocortex is the result of evolutionary refinement that optimizes communication speed and total demand for brain wiring (axonal mass) and connectivity

A

white and grey matter

182
Q

_ of grey and white matter would require considerably more wiring

A

intermixing

183
Q

Each _ of isocortex differs in cell type, cell size, and population density

A

layer

184
Q

Plexiform or molecular layer, i.e., layer _ is the most superificial layer/anterior layer (next to the meninges)

A

layer 1 (I have to make sure that I go from top to bottom, and not bottom to top…check my other questions!)

185
Q

Layer _ contains few scatter neurons and consists mainly of extensions of apical dendritic tufts of pyramidal neurons and horizontally-oriented axons, in addition to glia

A

layer 1

186
Q

Some - and spiny stellate neurons can be found in layer 1

A

CAjal-Retzius

187
Q

Inputs to apical tufts in layer 1 are crucial for cortical feedback involved in _ learning and attention

A

associative

188
Q

Layer 1 across the entire cerebral cortex receives substantial input from ‘matrix’ or M-type neurons in the _

A

thalamus

189
Q

Core or C-type thalamus neurons project to cortex layer _

A

4

190
Q

Sparse nuclei in layer 1 can be seen belonging to _ cells

A

glial

191
Q

Lots of dendritic and axonal synapses are found in layer _

A

1

192
Q

The external granular layer, or layer _ has a dense population of small pyramidal neurons and numerous stellate neurons, and contains axonal and dendritic synapses

A

layer 2

193
Q

The external pyramidal cell layer, or layer _, contains predominantly small and medium-size pyramidal neurons as well as non-pyramidal neurons with vertically-oriented intracortical axons

A

layer 3

194
Q

Layers 1 through 3 are the main target of interhemispheric/between hemispheres cortical _FFERENTS

A

afferents (coming in)

195
Q

Layer 3 is the principal source of cortico-cortical _

A

efferents

196
Q

_ cells are also present in layer 3

A

Martinotti

197
Q

The internal granular layer, or Layer _, consists of densely packed stellate and pyramidal neurons

A

layer 4 (IV)

198
Q

The main target of thalamo-cortical afferents from thalamus type C neurons as well as intra-hemispheric cortico-cortical afferents is layer _

A

4 (internal granular layer)

199
Q

Layer _, aka the internal pyramidal/ganglionic layer, contains large pyramidal neurons which give rise to axons leaving the cortex and running down to subcortical structures such as the basal ganglia

A

layer 5

200
Q

Layer 5, aka the internal pyramidal/ganglionic layer, contains large pyramidal neurons which give rise to axons leaving the cortex and running down to subcortical structures such as the _ _

A

basal ganglia

201
Q

The primary motor cortex layer V contains _ cells, whose axons travel through the internal capsule, brain stem and spinal cord

A

Betz cells

202
Q

The primary motor cortex layer V contains Betz cells, whose axons travel through the internal capsule, brain stem and spinal cord, forming the _ tract

A

corticospinal tract

203
Q

The main pathway for voluntary motor control is the _ tract

A

corticospinal tract

204
Q

Betz axons travel through the _ _, brain stem and spinal cord, forming the corticospinal tract

A

internal capsule

205
Q

Layer _, aka the polymorphic or multiform cell layer, contains few large pyramidal neurons and many small spindle-like pyramidal neurons, and other neurons of all shapes

A

layer 6

206
Q

Layer 6 sends efferent fibres to the _, thereby establishing a very price reciprocal interconnection between the cortex and the _

A

thalamus

207
Q

Layer 6 neurons from a cortical _ connect with thalamus neurons that provide input to the same cortical _

A

column

208
Q

Neurons that connect with the thalamus and layer 6 of the neocortex have connections that are both _ and _

A

excitatory and inhibitory

209
Q

Neurons send _ fibres to neurons in the thalamus, and also send collaterals to the thalamic reticular nucleus that _ these same thalamus neurons or ones spatially adjacent to them

A

neurons send excitatory, whereas thalamus reticular neuron inhibits them

Nelly (9 decks)

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