History of Neuropsychology Flashcards
What did Franz Joseph Gall develop in an early attempt to relate mental faculties to specific brain locations?
functional localization
Where is Broca’s area located?
the frontal lobe of the left hemisphere
What process is described during the development of experimental methods for ‘parsing’ the various stages of information processing within the brain during performance of carefully timed tasks?
mental chronometry
What study defines brain structure/function relationships by studying patients who suffered penetrating missile wounds to the head?
“gunshot wound neurology”
What is brain metabolism?
measurement of the relationships between function and structure by monitoring local changes
What are brain abnormalities found in localization technologies?
lesions caused by disease or accident
What did Camillo Golgi develop, being a chemical process for revealing thte details in a thin slice of nervous system tissue?
“la reaction negra”
What solution is absorbed into small fraction of the cell bodies and axonal processes in a slice of nervous system tissue in visualization processes, rendering the slices opaque to light?
silver nitrate
What did Golgi’s “stain”, by using a microscope, make it possible to see in his visualization technique?
silhouettes of individual cells in the nervous system
Who actually realized that Golgi’s stain showed the nervous system as composed of individual cells?
Santiago Ramon Y CAJAL
What year did Golgi and Cajal share the Nobel Prize in medicine for their work in stain techniques to encounter cells in nervous system tissue?
1906
Who prepared individual neurons revealed from staining nervous system tissue, as well as draw examples of neurons, etc.?
Cajal
What is the term used for the technical field of using microscopes to view objects and areas of objects that cannot be seen with the naked eye
microscopy
What do the three well-known branches, being optical, electron, and scanning probe, have to do with neurological mapping?
modern histologic microscopy
What are CRISPR techniques another name for?
gene splicing
How did Fritsch and Hitzig identify the primary motor cortex, and other brain regions that control movements via connections with the primary motor cortex?
they applied electrical stimuli to cortex in dogs to elicit muscle contraction on the OPPOSITE side of the body
What does the primary motor cortex deal with?
This region of cortex activates discrete muscles on the OPPOSITE side of the body
Did Fritsch and Hitzig in 1870 use chemicals or electricity in the cortex to cause limbs of dogs to jiggle and wiggle?
electricity
What is the Galvanometer?
a 19th century apparatus for recording electrical activity in muscles and nerves
What measures electrical responses from the heart?
an electrocardiogram
What measures the light-evoked electrical response from the eye?
an electroretinogram
What measures the electrical responses from the brain?
an electroencephalogram
Are galvanometers a fast-responder?
no
Why would the small size and noisy aspect of the nervous system be a problem for neurologists?
it would be more difficult to record their electrical activity in the brain
What in 1906 by Lee Deforest vacuum triode tube that made amplication of small electrical signals possible?
the electronic amplifier
What made technologies such as the transistor possible following WWII, to create complex circuits with many functional elements integrated together (or “integrated circuits”), applied to signal processing applications?
silicon-based technologies
How did Adrian and Matthews record their own EEGs in 1933?
By using the newly invented cathode-ray oscillograph
How were Hodgkin and Huxley able to electrically stimulate and record electrical output using electronic equipment initially developed for communication engineering by the end of WWII?
from individual squid giant axons
What is defined as the structural and functional characteristics that allow an organism to reproduce more successfully are passed on to offspring?
natural selection
What is required to make natural selection possible?
variance in structure and function?
What provides variance in structure and function in species?
genetic mutation
Was Darwin aware of Mendel’s work during his work on the theory of natural selection?
Yes, but it didn’t affect him
What have impacted molecular biology to:
- localize where, and understand how, the DNA of the genome gives rise to normal and abnormal neural tissues;
- chemically ‘edit’ gene sequences;
- insert foreign genetic material into cells so as to alter their ultimate phenotypic expression; and,
- genetically engineer the expession of different proteins, so they fluoresce in different colours when irradiated with UV light, for ease of identification in histologic studies
modern genetic methods
What sequences do modern genetic methods do to chemically “edit” in molecular biology?
gene sequences
What type of expression is altered when foreign genetic material is inserted into cells?
phenotypic expression
What of the genome gives rise to normal and abnormal neural tissues?
DNA
How do different proteins fluoresce in different colours when genetically engineering the expression of different proteins for ease of identification in histologic studies?
they are irradiated with UV light
What type of studies is required for neurological purposes?
- assessment of CNS function using testing procedures requiring behavioural responses
- standardized testing protocols
- comparisons to ‘norms’ or controls
- by far the widest range of methods developed to the present
- because most tests require patient cooperation, medicine is reluctant to rely on neuropsychology results alone…
- malingering is an issue
experimental psychology
What type of intervention in brain function is used for learning, and experience?
behavioural
What type of intervention in brain function is used for trauma, such as high g-force shock?
physical
What type of intervention in brain function is needed for neurosurgical ablation, or electrocautery?
surgical
What type of intervention in brain function is needed for drugs, alcohol, or chemicals?
chemical
What type of intervention in brain function is needed for electroshock, or Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation?
electrical
What does TMS stand for in regards to an electrical intervention in brain function?
Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation
What was created by Wilder Penfield when he used electrical brain stimulation to map cortical functions in awake epilepsy patients during craniotomy?
the Montreal procedure
What group did Canadian neurosurgeon Wilder Penfield found in 1934?
the Montreal Neurological Institute
In the “Montreal procedure”, what is stimulated electrically to produce “experiential responses”?
the temporal lobe
What activity in the temporal lobe can elicit “experiential responses”?
epileptic seizures
Are patients awake or under sedation during the “Montreal procedure”?
awake
What is coined as the “EMI-scanner”, developed by Hounsfield in 1970, also known as the CT or CAT scanning machine?
the first practical computerizezd axial tomograph machine
What group of axial images of the brain show crosssection images?
Computed tomography
What is tractography?
tracing axon bundles through the brain in 3D
What projections are tracked in colour using tractography?
white matter
What type of tractography can you not easily draw (as Cajal attempted years ago), and luckily is done by computer?
visualizing automated tractography
In clinical tractography, does healthy control mean symmetrical projections, or not?
Yes. Abnormalities that are shown as asymmetrical may indicate large problems to a clinical neuropsychologist
What is the first requirement of the Ethics of Research on Humans and Animals guideline?
Both human and animal research must be humane and worthwhile
What is the second requirement of the Ethics of Research on Humans and Animals guideline?
Ethical approval must be sought and obtained for all research involving humans and animals
What is the third requirement of the Ethics of Research on Humans and Animals guideline?
Where ethical considerations impede research progress, other alternatives are possible
