Week 1-4 Flashcards
What is the Primary motive for engaging with research based information?
Is to reduce clinical uncertainty
Define: Proporsitional
Formal, explicit, derived from research and scholarship
Define: non-proporsitional
Informal, implicit, derived primarily through practice
Who defined evidence-based medicine
Sackett 1996
Define: Evidence-based practice
Is the integration of best research evidence with clinical expertise and patient values to facilitate clinical decision making (Sackett)
What were the 3 names in the history of EBP
Sackett
Cochrane
Charmers
Define: Primary sources
Original research/studies
Define: Secondary sources
These refer to, include or combine original research studies
Define: Paradigm
Is a research approach based on the research question and the purpose of the study
(Is a world view)
What are the 3 main research paradigm approaches
Positivist approach
Critical approach
Interpretive approach
Research Paradigms
Explain: Positivist approach
Truth is discovered through objective, deductive reasoning, traditional and scientific tests
- quantitative, rct, epidemiological methods
Research Paradigms
Explain: Critical approach
Takes an emancipatory view of the world
- qualitative, critical social theory
Research Paradigms
Explain: Interpretive approach
The researcher believes in the existance of multiple truths rather than a single truth (qualitative, constructivist (naturalistic))
- phenomenology, grounded theory, ethnography
When is a PIC used
For a Qualitative research question
What does PIC stand for in a Qualitative question
P- population
I- interest (defined event, experience etc)
C- context (is the setting or distinct characteristic)
Define: Research question
Is a questions about the relationship between 2 or more concepts
Why is a research question important
Its the foundation of the research study
- its the first step in any research project
Matching research questions with a research approach
Exploratory
Explanatory
Exploratory- Qualitative
Explanatory- Quantitative
What are the 3 types of Variables
Independent- is the variable that determines, influences, or produces the change in the other main variable
Dependent- this variable is dependent on or influenced by the independent variable
Extraneous- refer to other variables that may affect the dependent variable
What are the 2 types of Hypotheses
Null hypothesis
Research hypothesis
Explain: Null Hypothesis (H0)
It assumes equality and represents no relationship between variables
(Operates as the comparison for the research hypothesis)
Explain: Research Hypothesis (H1)
It provides a definitive statement that there is in fact a relationship between the independent and dependent variables
What are the 2 types of Research Hypotheses
Non-directional hypothesis- a difference is acknowledge but no specific direction is implied
Directional hypothesis- we state the direction of the relationship between 2 variables
Explain: Sampling
takes a portion of a population as representative of that population
In sampling- what must be mentioned in the research paper
Inclusion criteria
Exclusion criteria
Explain: probability sampling
Is the least bias of all sampling methods, there is no subjectivity and each member of the total population has an equal chance of being selected for inclusion of a study
- used for quantitative research
Explain: non-probability sampling
Is a sampling method where the samples are gathered in a process that does not give all the individuals in the population an equal chance of being selected
- mainly used in qualitative research (can be used in quant)
List the 4 different techniques of Probability sampling
- simple random sampling
- system random sampling
- stratified random sampling
- cluster random sampling
Define: Random Sampling
Is the technique for participant selection for a study
Define: Random Allocation
Refers to how the already selected participants are allocated to treatment groups
Probability sampling
Give examples: Simple random sampling
- rolling a dice
- pulling names out of a hat
- using computer programs to randomly select names from a list
Probability sampling
Give examples: Systematic random sampling
Are chosen in an organised systematic way
Eg. Selecting every 3rd student on a roll for inclusion into a study
Probability sampling
Give examples: Stratified random sampling
Are typically from naturally splits into non-overlapping portions/sub groups in a population Eg. Males and females
Researcher chooses their ‘sub groups’ and from those, individuals are randomly selected from each sub group
Probability sampling
Give examples: Cluster random sampling
When natural groupings are evident in a population. Total population are divided into clusters.
Define: Sample size
Relates to how many participants are needed for a study
List some of the Quantitative data collection methods
- Physiological or biological measurement
- Observation
- Interviews and questionnaires (surveys)
- Records
- other documents
Quantitative data collection methods
Explain: physiological measurement
Suited to clinical issues, inc. effectiveness of practices/interventions
- objective and generally considered reliable
Quantitative data collection methods
Explain: observation
Quantitative observation suited to complex situations that are difficult to measure in parts
Structured- tools/rating scale are used by the observer who watches participants and records behaviour
Unstructured- there is no tool to guide observation process, observer writes free text field notes of their observations
Quantitative data collection methods
Explain: interviews
Are conversations between researcher and study participant (Qual & Quant)
- are usually focused and follow a structured timeline/template
Quantitative data collection methods
Explain: Questionaires
Is a tool used to gather information.
- can be closed or open ended questions and reduces ambiguity
Quantitative data collection methods
Explain: records and other documents
Are time saving and cost saving, however the quality of the data cannot be verified
Define: Validity
The extent to which an instrument measures what it is suppose to measure
Define: Positivism
refers to a philosophical position that reflects the traditional scientific approach of objective observation, prediction and testing of causal relationships
Define: Research Consumers
Are the people who use the research findings
Define: Research Design
refers to the planning of the research, the selection of methodology or design and associated methods for identifying and recruiting the sample/ participants, collecting and analysing data
Define: Epistemiology
is the theoretical study of knowledge Research Philosophy
involved in the search for knowledge and truth(s). It provides a focus for the study
Define: Ontology
is the study of existence. It provides the ‘world-view’ that guides the study (e.g. ‘What is the nature of reality?’, ‘What is it like to be a human being?’)
Define: Bibliographical databases
are software packages designed to create your own reference library
Define: Null Hypothesis
Assumes equality and represents no relationship between variables
-Operates as the comparison (or benchmark) for the research hypothesis
Define: Operational definitions
refers to measurements used to observe or measure a variable and to the delineation of the procedures or operations required to measure, analyse or evaluate a concept
Define: Grey Literature
is a term used to refer to evidence that may exist in a format that is often hard to find using a bibliographical index such as CINAHL or PubMed.
Define: Research Question
Is a question about the relationship between 2 or more concepts
Define: Variables
Is any property of a person, thing, event, setting and so on that is not fixed
Research is guided by what 3 concepts
Ontology
Epistemology
Methodology
The first step of the research process involves:
Identifying the problem/issue
The practice of evidence based medicine means…
integrating individual clinical expertise with the best available external clinical evidence from systematic research.
True/False
All nurses and midwives need to be consumers of research.
True
Define: Inductive reasoning
The type of reasoning where you begin with the component parts and build them into a whole
Define: Deductive reasoning
The type of reasoning when you start with the whole and break it down into the component parts
Define: Evidence generation
A term used to describe conducting research to generate new knowledge
What type of paradigm is associated with quantitative research
Positivism
What type of paradigm is associated with qualitative research
Relativism, Contructivism, Interpretive
Define: Pragmatism
A philosophical approach that asserts that the nature of the individual research problem should influence the methods used to explore it.
Give an example: That explain the 3 types of variables
Pot of water on a stove
Independent variable- Stove (heat)
Dependent variable- pot of water
Extraneous variable- pot type, material used, thickness
From a Research Question:
“Do women retain more information about breastfeeding through verbal communication compared to written pamphlets”
Independent variable- written pamphlet and verbal communication
Dependent variable- retention of BF information
Extraneous variable- women’s understanding of english, attention etc
What do we mean when we refer to the significance of the research problem
- The level of impact the research problem has in clinical practice
- its importance or its implications for practice
Define: Research idea
refers to the initial problem or phenomena identified by the researcher
Define: Research problem
refers to the refinement of a research idea into an examinable research statement, question or hypothesis
Define: Research ‘problem’ statement
Should reflect a refinement of the researchers initial thinking.
- Its includes the research idea, problem and research question
What type of hypothesis is this? “There is association between year of experience and retention rate among registered nurse.
Non-directional hypothesis
What type of hypothesis is this? “Relaxation techniques can improve quality of life of patients with cancer.”
Directional hypothesis
True/False
Hypotheses are only used in quantitative research
True
True/False
The research design is driven by the research question, not the other way around.
True
What are the 3 types of Quantitative research designs
Experimental
Quasi-Experimental
Observational
Quantitative Research Design
Describe: Experimental
- Experimental
- Treatment vs control
- Randomisation
- used to test cause-and-effect relationships
Quantitative Research Design
Describe: Quasi-Experimental
- Treatment vs control
- No randomisation
- able to test cause-and-effect relationships
- internal validity threatened (lack of control) which weakens causal inference
Quantitative Research Design
Describe: Observational design
are used when a researcher wishes to construct a picture of a phenomenon or explore events, people or situations as they naturally occur in the environment.
- The aim is therefore to observe and identify variables of interest and explore relationships between those variables in the environment)
Quantitative research
Define: Manipulation
refers to the researcher introducing the independent variable (treatment/intervention) only into the “treatment group” (not control group)
What is the Gold Standard for testing cause-and-effect relationships in research
Randomised Controlled Trials
Quantitative research
Describe: Correlational studies
- This design used to quantify the strength of the relationship between variables
- cannot test cause-and-effect relationship
- examines relationships between pairs of variables as well as comparisons between groups
Quantitative research
Describe: Cross sectional studies
- This design is also called ‘descriptive’ or ‘analytic’
- Uses inferential statistics to infer a relationship between two or more variables
Quantitative research
Describe: Case-control studies
- Study direction is retrospective
- is an epidemiological approach examining participants on the basis of a study outcome (clinical characteristic, condition or disease)
- studies are unable to draw a causal link between the two variables.
Quantitative research
Describe: Cohort studies
- Used to examine relationships retrospectively and prospectively
- An epidemiological approach where the direction is from the exposure to the outcome, or cause to presumed effect
Quantitative Research
Define: Control
Is the presence of constants in a study
inc. controlling for extraneous variables, using comparison (control) groups, and implementing an explicit study protocol
Define: Reliability
Is the reproducibility of the results of a procedure or tool
(Reliability)
What are the 3 types of reliability
Test-retest reliability
Inter-rater reliability
Internal consistency (homeogenaity)
Types of reliability
Define: Test-retest reliability
To establish that a measurement instrument is capable of obtaining the same results with consistancy
Types of reliability
Define: Inter-rater reliability
Is the stability of data recorded by more than one individual in one trial/study
Types of reliability
Define: internal consistency/homeogenaity
Is when:
The scores within a scale where there are number of items or questions that are used to measure a construct, in these scales we need to ensure all of the items are reliably or consistently measuring the same thing
Whats the purpose of Inclusion/Exclusion criteria
control for any bias or extraneous variability
Explain: The study sampling technique
it tells you whether you can apply the study results into the clinical area with confidence
The extent to which the findings can be generalised beyond the sample is referred to as…
External validity
What type of instrument measures what it is suppose to measure
a valid instrument
What type of instrument measures the variable consistently, dependably and accurately
a reliable instrument
Whether the intervention has a measureable effect on the outcome is known as…
internal validity
The term “Cronbach’s alpha” is used to express ______ of an instrument
reliability of an instrument
What are commonly used in quantitative research for data collection
Questionnaires
Qualitative Terms- Rigour
Define: Auditability
The presence of a decision trail with sufficient detail to allow a second researcher to follow the decision making and reach the similar conclusions to the original researcher.
Qualitative Terms- Rigour
Define: Credibility
Steps taken to ensure the accuracy, authenticity and validity of the data.
Qualitative Terms- Rigour
Define: Transferability
Whether or not the findings of the research are applicable to settings outside the research site.
Qualitative Terms- Rigour
Define: Data Saturation
No new information is yielded from additional data collection.
Define: Meta-analysis
Is a series of statistical tests used for pooling the results of several empirical studies that have the same hypothesis, to asses the statistical and clinical importance/significance.
(Secondary analysis in systematic reviews)
Define: Generalisability
is the extent to which the results of research can be generalised to other samples or situations (External validity)
Explain: Likert scale
Example of a fixed response format used to determine a participants attitude or opinion. Eg. Agree, strongly agree etc
Explain: Random Selection
Refers to how sample members are selected form the population for inclusion in the study.
