Week 1-2 Flashcards

Question 1

Q

What areneurons and synapses

Answer

A

Neurons

<ul> <li>Cells in the nervous system</li> <li>Electrical signals (“action potentials”) are transmitted along the axons.</li></ul>

Synapses

<ul> <li>Where neurons meet</li> <li>Chemical signals (“neurotransmitters”) transmitted between neurons</li></ul>

Question 2

Q

How do neurons in the CNS, PNS, ENS communicate?

What is the function?

Answer

A

<ul> <li>All neurons in the CNS, PNS and ENS communicate through chemical signals (Neurotransmitters & neuromodulators). <ul> <li>Chemicals modulate neural activity and other functions like synaptic plasticity</li> <li>Without these chemical signals, the action of one neuron would not influence any other neuron in the nervous system (no brain integration and no useful brain function).</li> </ul> </li></ul>

Question 3

Q

How many neurons are there in the CNS

Answer

A

100 billion neurons in the CNS

Question 4

Q

What are hormones

Answer

A

Signaling molecules produced by glands and transported through the blood to regulate physiology (muscles, neurons etc) and behaviour.

Also directly modulate NT levels and function (sex hormones)

Question 5

Q

4 differencses between NT and hormones

Answer

A

NT

<ul> <li>Nervous system</li> <li>Tramission between neurons (Across synapse)</li> <li>Target cells can be specific neurons or other cells</li> <li>Generally fast (ms), though sustained NT release can lead to more sustained changes in brain</li></ul>

Hormones

<ul> <li>Endocrine system</li> <li>Travel by blood</li> <li>Target cells can be some distance from endocrine gland</li> <li>Much slower, ranging from few seconds to days</li> <li>Also directly modulate NT levels and function</li></ul>

Question 6

Q

What is the blood-brain barrier? (Location, Function)

Answer

A

Location

<ul> <li>Exists within 600km of blood vessels in the CNS</li></ul>

Function

<ul> <li>Prevents many substances from passing betweenblood andbrain.</li> <li>Many drugs, natural chemicals and foreign infections cant pass through (but is not perfect – small amounts of many things still get through).</li> <li>However, multiple other avenues for controlled passage between blood and nervous system exist.</li></ul>

Question 7

Q

What is the PNS (Location, Function)

Answer

A

Location

<ul> <li>Nerves and ganglia outside of the brain and spinal cord</li></ul>

Function

<ul> <li>Receives sensory information about body position, pain and temperature, etc</li> <li>Sends messages from the brain to control muscles and movement.</li></ul>

Question 8

Q

What is the ENS (Locaton - 1, how many neurons - 1 , properties - 6, function - 3)

Answer

A

Location

<ul> <li>ENS (2nd brain) is part of the PNS</li></ul>

How many neurons

<ul> <li>Contains 100million neurons</li></ul>

Properties

<ul> <li>Has its own reflexes and senses and can act independently of the brain</li> <li>Does not engage in consciousness, philosophy, decision-makingdespite being so much like our “main” brain.</li> <li>Only part of the PNS that can act autonomously</li> <li>Nearly every neurotransmitter found in the brain is also found in the gut</li> <li>95% of all our serotonin is found in the gut</li> <li>90% of connections between the brain and gut go from the gut to the brain.</li></ul>

Function

<ul> <li>Helps digestion</li> <li>Plays a major role in emotions, stress (butterflies in our stomachs)</li> <li>Links between gut health and clinical depression / anxiety.</li></ul>

Question 9

Q

What are the 3 systems in the gut-brain interaction (And elaborate)

Answer

A

1. Peripheral Serotonin

<ul> <li>Cells in gut produce serotonin, affecting brain given the large amount of connectivity from gut to brain</li></ul>

2. Immune System

<ul> <li>Intestinal microbiome can promptimmune cells to produce cytokines, affecting neurophysiology</li></ul>

3. Bacterial Molecules

<ul> <li>Microbes produce metabolites (e.g. butyrate), affecting activity of cells in blood-brain barrier</li></ul>

Question 10

Q

What is microbiome and microbiota

Answer

A

Microbiome

<ul> <li>Combined genetic material of microbiota</li> <li>> 100 times more genes than the human genome</li></ul>

Microbiota

<ul> <li>Trillions of bacteria and other microorganisms that live in the gut</li> <li>Impacts brain, behaviour, cognition <ul> <li>Shy mice became "adventurous" after receiving gut microbiota transplant from social mice</li> </ul> </li></ul>

Question 11

Q

How does the gut microbiota influence the brain

How does the brain influence the gut (neurophysiologically)

Answer

A

<ul> <li>Gut microbiota impacts brain via modulatingimmune, circulatory and neural pathways, ensuring homeostasis and development</li> <li>CNS impacts the gut via neural and endocrine response</li></ul>

Question 12

Q

What is Gut Microbiota Dysbiosis and What are the risk factors?

Answer

A

Gut Microbiota Dysbiosis:

<ul> <li>Imbalance of gut microbiota, leading to potential for disease</li></ul>

Risks:

<ul> <li>Genetic</li> <li>Low Sunslight/Vitamin D</li> <li>Tobacco Smoke</li> <li>Obesity</li> <li>Shift-Work (Sleep)</li> <li>Epstein-Barr Virus <ul> <li>Not everyone develops diseases from these risk factors</li> </ul> </li></ul>

Question 13

Q

What is the link between sickness behaviour and brain

Answer

A

Bidirectional link between brain to immune system and immune system to brain

Activation of the immune system due to illness triggers a series of temporary behavioural, cognitive and emotional changes including:

<ul> <li>Fever</li> <li>Increased sleep & general lethargy</li> <li>Depressed mood</li> <li>Hyperalgesia (increased pain sensations)</li> <li>Loss of interest in usual activities</li> <li>Anorexia (reduced appetite)</li> <li>Decreased social interaction</li> <li>Impaired concentration</li></ul>

Question 14

Q

How does cytokines affect the brain?

Answer

A

Too big to pass through BBB.

Enter brain indirectly or trigger new cytokines to be released in the brain

Question 15

Q

What is an example of our integrated brains

Answer

A

Kissing

<ul> <li>Increases risk of transmitting illness</li> <li>Allows transfer of hormones like testosterone to passed on to directly increase arousal</li> <li>Others suggest it is a show of trust and close bond (either between the individuals or to the public)</li></ul>

Question 16

Q

What is sickness behaviour thought to be

Answer

A

Strategy to conserve energy and improve fight against infection

Question 17

Q

Define "Stress"?

What feelings is it associated with?

Answer

A

<ul> <li>Stress is a response to a perceived aversive or threatening situation</li> <li>Feelings of being overloaded, wound-up tight, tense and worried.</li></ul>

Question 18

Q

Is stress positive or negative?

Answer

A

Both

Positive:

<ul> <li>Exciting, motivating, improving alertness & performance</li></ul>

Negative:

<ul> <li>Harmful for health and function</li></ul>

Question 19

Q

What is a critical component of a stress experience?

What are thrill seekers attracted to?

Answer

A

Critical Component

<ul> <li>Real or perceived lack of control over the stressor (Threat of bad events without control is sufficient)</li> <li>Thrill seekers are often attracted to “calculate risks,” with somebut not total control of the risk (Complete lack of control is generally negative)</li></ul>

Question 20

Q

What are the 3 types of stress. What are the differences.

Answer

A

1.) Acute Stress

<ul> <li>Single eventthat leads to increased “flight or fight” response, raising arousals</li></ul>

2.) Episodic Acute Stress

<ul> <li>Repeated (but independent) acute stress events <ul> <li>e.g. life chaos, excessive worry about normal events.</li> </ul> </li></ul>

3.) Chronic Stress

<ul> <li>Seemingless endless and uncontrollable</li></ul>

Question 21

Q

What is the advantage of animal models of stress

Answer

A

Human studies are correlational or observational (ethics)

Animal studies provide direct measures of effects of different types of stress on biology

Question 22

Q

What is the key brain region in stress?

Whatare the 2brain systems mediating stress?

Explan the process briefly.

Answer

A

Acute stress response:Fight or Flight

<ul> <li>Rapid detection of threat in the amygdala</li> <li>Activates hypothalamus (Key coordination centre)</li> <li>Activate the HPA axis and sympathetico-adrenal-medullary pathway <ul> <li>HPA system (Hypothalamus > Putiliary Gland > Adrenal Gland) <ul> <li>Cortisol</li> </ul> </li> <li>Sympathetic Nervous System <ul> <li>Epinephrine/Norepinephrine</li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li></ul>

Coritsol & NA facilitates the fight or flight

Question 23

Q

Explain the HPA Axis Process

Answer

A

<ol> <li>Hypothalamus activated (Triggers emotional responses)</li> <li>Pituitary Gland activated</li> <li>Adrenal Cortex activated (Adrenal Gland)</li> <li>Releases cortisol (detected in blood)and adrenaline</li> <li>Increases metabolism, blood flow, HR</li></ol>

Question 24

Q

Explain the different process in acute moderate vs high stress

Answer

A

Moderate

<ul> <li>Aroused & optimal functioning ofPFC</li> <li>Allow top-down regulation of thought, actions & emotions</li></ul>

High

<ul> <li>Impaired optimal PFC function</li> <li>Since PFC has inhibitory inputs into subcortical arousal structures (e.g., basil ganglia, amygdala), this increases the influence of emotional responses, habitual action and bodies arousal response</li></ul>

Question 25

Q

What are the 3 effects of acute stress on the brain

Answer

A

PFC Impaired

<ul> <li>Weakened Inhibitory Control (Substance Abuse)</li></ul>

Amygdala Strengthened

<ul> <li>Increased memory consolidation of stressful events</li> <li>Increased fear conditioning</li></ul>

Question 26

Q

What are the 3 effects of chronic stress on the brain (Brain parts)

Answer

A

Hippocampus:

<ul> <li>Episodic Memory</li> <li>Declarative Memory</li></ul>

PFC:

<ul> <li>Working Memory</li> <li>Fear Extinction</li></ul>

Amygdala:

<ul> <li>Aggression</li> <li>Emotional Memory</li></ul>

Question 27

Q

Why does stress increase sensitivity to stress?

Answer

A

Hippocampus:Contextual Learning

<ul> <li>Impaired emotional and memory function reduces flexible emotional processing and reduce separation between memories</li> <li>Causesovergeneralization and less capacity cope with new real or potential stressful events.</li></ul>

Question 28

Q

What are theeffects of a.) acute (1) and b.) chronic stress (3) on the body?

Answer

A

Release of glucocorticoids (e.g. cortisol) triggers

Acute effects

<ul> <li>Increased energy availability in muscles and breaking down fats & proteins to glucose.</li></ul>

Chronic effects

<ul> <li>Suppressimmune system <ul> <li>i.e, train drivers that injure or kill people are more likely to suffer illness months later</li> </ul> </li> <li>High blood pressure <ul> <li>Increasing stroke & heart attacks</li> </ul> </li> <li>Reduced fertility</li></ul>

Question 29

Q

Why we evolved to get acute and chronic stress?

Answer

A

Acute Stress:

<ul> <li>Helps animals to respond to threats to their survival “flight or flight”</li> <li>A reactive/reflexive brain might improve survival in immediate danger.</li></ul>

Chronic Stress:

<ul> <li>Effects of early stress on an individual are clearly negative – leading to increased antisocial behaviour, aggression and/or social isolation.</li> <li>In an evolutionary context, some have suggested that these sustained changes could prepare an animal/human for similar adversity later in life (enhance fighting readiness)</li></ul>

Question 30

Q

What other factors (other than control) influence the stress response

Answer

A

<ul> <li>Genetics</li> <li>Environment</li></ul>

Examples:

Hot environmental temperatures linked to higher crime and violence (“hot under the collar”)

Financial crises leads to high levels of violence against women and children.

Question 31

Q

What is PTSD caused by?

What are otherfactors?

What is it associated with?

Answer

A

Cause

<ul> <li>Experiencing or witnessing death/serious harm (actual or threatened) or learning of trauma to loved one</li></ul>

Factors

<ul> <li>Both environmental and genetic factors</li></ul>

Associated with

<ul> <li>Recurrent dreams, panic attacks &“flash backs”.</li> <li>Poor mental and physical health</li></ul>

Question 32

Q

What are the brain areas associated with PTSD?

Answer

A

<ul> <li>Smaller hippocampus (Twin war veteran)</li> <li>Increased amygdala and insula activity to threat</li> <li>Reduced vmPFC to threat <ul> <li>Similar pattern to chornic stress: Less PFC, more Amygdala</li> </ul> </li></ul>

Question 33

Q

Stress and Psychiatric Disorders - Depression, SZ/Bipolar, AD

Answer

A

Depression

<ul> <li>Similar brain areas are implicated in chronic stress and depression and while depression is different it is often considered a stress-related disorder</li></ul>

SZ/Bipolar

<ul> <li>Triggers increased severity of symptoms</li></ul>

AD

<ul> <li>Women with serious stressors in middle age more likely to develop memory impairments</li></ul>

Question 34

Q

How does stress affect emotional memory neurologically

Answer

A

<ul> <li>Glucocorticoid (e.g. cortisol) stimulates NA response in the basolateral nucleus of the amygdala (BLA), enhancing retention of emotional stimuli</li> <li>Stress hormones (Cortisol and NA) have been associated with greater memory consolidation in animal and humans</li></ul>

Question 35

Q

How does propranolol work?

Answer

A

Propranolol

<ul> <li>NA enhances emotional memory</li> <li>Propanolol blockactivation ofβ-adrenergic receptors by NAand adrenal stress hormones, inhibiting NA action</li> <li>Triggering memory + propanolol = Memories can be "relearened" without fear response, with original memory intact (Implications for PTSD and anxiety-related conditions)</li></ul>

Question 36

Q

What is MBSR. How does it help?

Answer

A

MBSR: Mindfulness-Based Stress Reduction

<ul> <li>MBSR found to moderately (compared to controls/placebo) improved depression, anxiety, distress, stress, quiality of life</li></ul>

How?

<ul> <li>Increasing cognitive flexibility and tolerance for uncomfortable physical stress/anxious sensations</li> <li>Reduce perception of threat</li></ul>

Question 37

Q

Explain the brain-behaviour cycle of stress

Answer

A

<ul> <li>Early life stress (Life circumstances) ></li> <li>"Epigenetic changes' ></li> <li>Lasting biologicalchanges ></li> <li>Impair decision making and health</li> <li>More negative behaviour and life circumstances</li></ul>

Question 38

Q

What is fear conditioning a form of and what does it involve?

Answer

A

<ul> <li>Classical conditioning <ul> <li>Pairing aversive stimulus (US; Shock) with neutral stimulus (CS; Light)</li> <li>Original neutral stimulus(CS; Light) leads to fear response (CR)</li> </ul> </li></ul>

Question 39

Q

What is classical and operant condiioning. Similarity/Differences

Answer

A

Classical:

<ul> <li>Associating automatic involuntary behaviour and stimulus</li> <li>Neutral stimulus before reflex</li></ul>

Operant:

<ul> <li>Associating voluntary behaviour and consequence</li> <li>Apply reinforcement or punishment to strengthen or weaken behaviour</li></ul>

Question 40

Q

What is fear extinction?

Answer

A

Gradual reduction of fear response when the conditioned stimulus is repeatedly presented without aversive outcome

Question 41

Q

What are threeproperties of fear extinction?

Answer

A

<ul> <li>Fear extinction requires extensive traning and fragile, unlike fear conditioning (rapid and robust) <ul> <li>Spontaneous Recovery: Time</li> <li>Renewal: Context</li> <li>Reinstatement: Re-exposed to original US</li> </ul> </li> <li>Fear extinction is context-dependent <ul> <li>Learning to reduce fear in one context may not translate to another</li> </ul> </li> <li>Fear extinction produces new memory trace (CS without aversive outcome), inhibiting original CS-US fear association <ul> <li>Not erase, but inhibit</li> </ul> </li></ul>

Question 42

Q

What are typical procedures in animal studies of fear conditioning/extinction

Answer

A

1.) Conditiong acquisiton phase

<ul> <li>Light/tone is paired with shock</li></ul>

2.) Extinction phase (Different chamber for context)

<ul> <li>Presented with repeated trials of light without shock</li></ul>

3.) Test Phase

<ul> <li>Subsequent day to assess retention of extinction</li></ul>

Question 43

Q

From Rodent Studies, How is fear conditioned in the brain (Neurologically)?

Answer

A

<ol> <li>Sensory input (CS) from auditory/visual cortexpairs with pain signals (US) from somatosensory cortex in basolateral nucleus of amygdala (BLA)</li> <li>Conditioned association from BLA activates central nucleus of amygdala</li> <li>Central nucelus of amydala sends afferent to hypothalamic and midbrain regions controlling arousal, freezing, hormonal response.</li></ol>

Question 44

Q

Difference between low and high road

Answer

A

Low Road:

<ul> <li>Autonmatic, rapid, reflexive fear response</li> <li>Senory input >thalamus > amygdala</li></ul>

High Road:

<ul> <li>Slower cortical inhibitory response</li> <li>If determined not threatening, PFC in high road inhibits fear response</li></ul>

Question 45

Q

What are the key areas in fearin RODENTS

Answer

A

Prelimbic Cortex (PL)

<ul> <li>Stimulation increase fearand inactivation reduces fear</li> <li>Activity predicts poor extinction <ul> <li>dACC equivalent</li> <li>Fear conditioning</li> </ul> </li></ul>

Infralimbic Cortex (IL)

<ul> <li>Stimulation reduces fear and inactivation impairs extinction</li> <li>Activity predicts good extinction <ul> <li>vmPFC equivalent</li> <li>Fear extinction</li> </ul> </li></ul>

Hippocampus

<ul> <li>Contextual information</li> <li>Work with vmPFC to inhibit amygdala</li></ul>

Question 46

Q

What does human neuroimaging found in regions for fear conditioning, extinction and extinction recall studies?

Answer

A

Conditioning

<ul> <li>dACC: Threat appraisal</li> <li>Insula: Introspective awareness of fear</li></ul>

Extinction

<ul> <li>dACC & Insula (note: there is activity but they are being inhibited)</li> <li>vmPFC (but less roboust)</li></ul>

Extinction Recall

<ul> <li>dACC & Insula (note: there is activity but they are being inhibited)</li> <li>vmPFC and hippocampus if compare CS+ (extinguished)to CS+ (never extinguished)</li></ul>

fMRI did not see Amygdala

SIMILAR REGIONS

Question 47

Q

Why do we see similar activations in conditionding and extinction in fMRI?

Answer

A

<ul> <li>Dorsal ACC and anterior insula are involved in threat appraisal and experience of anxiety. These same networks might be activated in conditioning and extinction but perform different functions</li> <li>Alternatively, these networks might still be activated but no behavioural experience/evidence of conditioning – a dissociation in fear measures</li> <li>Role of vmPFC in extinction still debated – contextual processing rather than fear inhibition?</li> <li>Maybe due to level of threat in healthy controls?</li></ul>

Question 48

Q

According to meta-analysis of fear extinction studies, what is the difference between humans and rodents neurologically

Answer

A

Compared to rodents, humans have

<ul> <li>Less robust vmPFC activation</li> <li>More robust dACC and anterior insula (similar to fear conditioning)</li></ul>

Question 49

Q

What are 3 explanations as to a lack of amygdala activity in human fear conditioning studies?

Answer

A

<ul> <li>Resolution of fMRI <ul> <li>Can't image subnucleii of amygdala</li> </ul> </li> <li>Amygdala only recruited with intense threat as part of defence-circuitry response (mild anxiety in human studies)</li> <li>Amygdala response habitutate after repeated trials</li></ul>

Question 50

Q

Why are three explanations fear conditioning and extinction involved in etiology of anxiety disorders

Answer

A

<ul> <li>Greater conditionability of CS + of anxetiy disorders (Note this is wrong)</li> <li>Greater stimulus generalization <ul> <li>Greater Reactivity to CS+ and Generalization to CS-</li> </ul> </li> <li>Impaired capacity to inhibt fear to CS+</li></ul>

Question 51

Q

When compared healthy and anxious participants in fear conditioning and extinction task, what were the results

Answer

A

<ul> <li>Greater conditionability of CS + of anxiety disorders <ul> <li>No Difference</li> </ul> </li> <li>Greater stimulus generalization <ul> <li>Greater Reactivity to CS+ and Generalization to CS-</li> <li>Overgeneralization in anxious patients</li> </ul> </li> <li>Impaired capacity to inhibt fear to CS+ <ul> <li>Reduced vmPPFC activity during extinction recall (another study) as well</li> </ul> </li></ul>

Question 52

Q

What are results of fear conditoning/extinction task with Trauma-exposed vs PTSD

Answer

A

Compared to Trauma-exposed controls,

<ul> <li>No greater conditionability in PTSD</li> <li>Impaired fear extinction in PTSD <ul> <li>Increased amygdala activity during extinction recall</li> <li>Reduced vmPFC activity during extinction recall <ul> <li>Note: Extinction recall is stronger than extinction learning</li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li></ul>

Question 53

Q

What is the link between PTSD symptoms and extinction? What is an evidence?

Answer

A

<ul> <li>10-15% who develop long-term PTSD have impaired extinction post-trauma (and pre-trauma)</li> <li>Deficits in extinction networks (reduced vmPFC) and increase amygdala activity to threat is normalized after exposure therapy for PTSD (i.e. increase vmPFC; decrease amygdala activity)</li></ul>

Question 54

Q

Why study sex hormones? (4)

Answer

A

<ul> <li>Sex hormones have a profound effect on development in the brain and body with important changes across the lifespan (neonatal, puberty, pregnancy in women, older age)</li> <li>They play a critical role in glial and neuronal development, brain structure and function</li> <li>They affect the quality of cognition and mood</li> <li>Thereplay a role in psychopathology and mental health disorders</li></ul>

Question 55

Q

Anxiety disorders rates and gender

Answer

A

<ul> <li>Women develop anxiety/stress-related disorders 2x the rate of men (not substance use disorder)</li> <li>Prevalance rates equal in boys and girls, increased prevalence develops at puberty with sex hormones increase, gender difference reduces post-menopause <ul> <li>Suggest sex hormones' role in psychopathology</li> </ul> </li></ul>

Question 56

Q

Even though it's important to study sex hormones, why are there so few studies?

Answer

A

<ul> <li>More expensive having male and female samples</li> <li>More expensive to control menstrual phase</li></ul>

Question 57

Q

What are the main sex hormones

Answer

A

1+2.) Estrogen and Progestrone "Female"

<ul> <li>Released from ovaries</li> <li>Flucuates across menstrual cycle</li> <li>Increases in pregnancy</li> <li>Drop post-pregnancy and post-menopause</li> <li>Females have testosterone (at low levels) from ovaries</li></ul>

3.) Testosterone "Male"

<ul> <li>Released from testes</li> <li>Males have estrogen (at lower levels) converted from testosterone</li></ul>

Both men and women have "male" and "female" sex hormones (with individual differences)

Question 58

Q

What explains gender differences?

Answer

A

<ul> <li>Exposure to sex hormones both before and after birth (some coded by non-sex chromosomes) required for sexual dimorphism (different characteristics)</li> <li>Importance of <ul> <li>gender roles</li> <li>environmental influences</li> <li>culture</li> </ul> </li></ul>

Question 59

Q

How doessex hormones impact the brain. Elaborate more on estrogen and progesterone

Answer

A

<ul> <li>Interacts directly with nervous system</li> <li>Estrogen and progesterone <ul> <li>Brain development and synaptic plasticity</li> <li>Influence activity of main NT systems and can directly affect NT receptor function</li> </ul> </li></ul>

Question 60

Q

What is the trend of sex hormones across the lifespan

Answer

A

Males

Puberty: Marked increase in testosterone, slight increase in estrodial

Females

Puberty: Marked increase in estrodial, no increase in testosterone

Menopause: Marked reduction in estrodial

Question 61

Q

What happens to hormones at puberty.

Explain the neurological process.

Answer

A

<ul> <li>Hypothalamus andpituitary gland involved in release of sex hormones</li> <li>GNRH (gonadal-releasing hormone) in the pituitary gland stimulate luteinizing hormone (LH) and follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) to stimulate the respective reproductive organs (testes and ovaries) <ul> <li>>>> Male testes and female ovaries release testosterone (sperm) and estrogen (egg) respectively</li> </ul> </li></ul>

Question 62

Q

Sex hormones and the menstrual cycle

Answer

A

Start Cycle (day 1-7)

<ul> <li>Estrogen and progesterone are low.</li></ul>

Mid Cycle(day 14)

<ul> <li>Progesterone stay low.</li> <li>Increases estrogen to peak stimulating LH and FSH</li> <li>LH and FSH spikes at midcycle (day 14) in preparation for ovulation <ul> <li>After that, estrogen, LH, FSH drops</li> </ul> </li></ul>

Luteal(day 18-24)

<ul> <li>Increase in progesterone and a small increasein estrogen <ul> <li>Progesterone levels remain low until now</li> <li>Causes breakout phase</li> </ul> </li></ul>

Goes down during menstration

Question 63

Q

Gender differences and behavior in children.

Answer

A

Girls: likes toys that allow nurturance and social play

Boys: likes toys that are more active

<ul> <li>Unclear how much is nature / nurture <ul> <li>But at 1 day old, boyslook at mobile while female look at faces</li> <li>Male monkeys play with cars/balls while female monkeys play with dolls</li> </ul> </li></ul>

Question 64

Q

What is testosterone associated with, and what should it be conceptualised as?

Answer

A

<ul> <li>T is associated with social aggression and response to social challenges <ul> <li>E.g., Male chimps release T and are more aggressivewhen female chimps in reproductive phase</li> </ul> </li> <li>T should not be conceptualized in terms of gender but instead in terms of Competition (high T) & Nurturance (low T)</li></ul>

Answer 65

A

<ul> <li>Offending rates consistently higher for men, butdivergence in offending rates between genders (where male increase substantially) coincides with puberty.</li> <li>Role of Testosterone in violence</li></ul>

Depending on the offence, men often over-represent victims of violence (male vs male fighting) but are also frequently impacted by domestic violenc. But the predominant victims of domestic violence are women.

Answer 66

A

<ul> <li>Social Behaviour</li> <li>Higher levels of estrogen linked to better mood, improved memory and executive function</li> <li>Administration of estrogen can bias decision-making toward smaller, more accessible goals</li></ul>

Answer 67

A

<ul> <li>Hormones transmit messages from one part of the body (the secreting gland) to another (the target tissue).</li> <li>Pheromones are chemicals that carry messages from one animal to another.Released from one animal that directly affect the physiology or behaviour of another (normally detected by smelling)</li></ul>

Answer 68

A

Women reported

<ul> <li>Alertness</li> <li>Psitive mood</li> <li>Icreased sexual arousal</li> <li>Timing of their menstrual cycle was altered</li> <li>When participating in a speed dating experiment women rated men to be more attractive.</li></ul>

Men reported less positive mood.

Answer 69

A

<ul> <li>Depression is 1.5 – 3 times more prevalent in women (prior to puberty thenumbers are equal)</li> <li>Periods of hormonal transitions and elevated or fluctuating sex hormones are associated with increased mood-disturbances</li> <li>Correlation between suicide attempts and periods of low estrogen</li></ul>

Answer 70

A

<ul> <li>Compared with non-users, contraceptive users had greater risk of requiring anti depressants and receiving depression diagnosis</li> <li>Contraceptives withgreater progesterone showed greatest risk increase.</li> <li>Greatest impacts were seen in adolescents (15-19yrs) with use of the pill increasing anti-depressant use by 80%</li></ul>

Answer 71

A

Post-partum depression: Onset of depressive symptoms after the birth of a baby.

<ul> <li>Genetic vulnerability</li> <li>Change in hormone levels (dramatic drop)</li> <li>High stress (lack of sleep etc.)</li> <li>Lack of support</li></ul>

May contribute

3 levels: Blues, Depression, Psychosis

Answer 72

A

<ul> <li>Anxiety disorders are also 1.5 to 2x greater prevalence in women than men (Only after puberty)</li> <li>Low estradiol associated withimpaired fear extinction recall and PTSD</li></ul>

Answer 73

A

<ul> <li>Generally emerge during late adolescence and early adulthood for males and females</li> <li>Low levels of Testosterone also linked to reduced mood, depression and impaired concentration, reduced confidence.</li></ul>

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