week 1

Question 1

Phrenology Theory - Franz Joseph Gall

Answer 1

• Brain has ~35 organs/faculties, each associated with traits (e.g., combativeness).
• Organ size indicates propensity for certain behaviors; skull shape believed to reveal criminal tendencies.
• Early “scientific” approach to understanding criminality. - Advocated for prison reform and move away from corporal punishment.

Question 2

Degeneration Theory - Cesare Lombroso

Answer 2

• Crime has biological roots; some are “born criminals.” - Physical traits (e.g., small stature, fleshy lips) were thought to indicate criminal predisposition. - Tied to Social Darwinism, focusing on the “unfit” in society.
• Founded Criminal Anthropology and led to innovations in identification methods like mugshots and fingerprinting.

Question 3

Émile Durkheim’s Theory of Anomie

Answer 3

Anomie (breakdown of social norms) occurs when moral values disintegrate, often due to rapid social change. - Individuals feeling alienated from societal values may turn to crime.
- Connected crime with social conditions, suggesting that urban environments with weakened bonds increase crime risk.

Question 4

Chicago School (20th Century)
Park, Burgess, Thrasher, Shaw, McKay

Answer 4

• Found urban poverty and social disorganization linked to crime in American cities, establishing the idea of neighborhood-level crime analysis.
• Behavior is influenced by the environment, especially in urban areas. - Introduced “natural areas” in cities, with neighborhoods having unique social dynamics. - Social Disorganization Theory: Failures in social institutions (e.g., family, schools) foster crime.
• Initiated ethnographic criminology research. - Criticized for overemphasis on environment without considering individual agency.

Question 5

Classical School of Criminology (Cesare Beccaria, Jeremy Bentham)

Answer 5

• Humans are rational, seek pleasure, avoid pain, and act with free will. - Principles of Deterrence: Certainty, severity, and celerity of punishment can deter crime.
• Promoted codified laws and proportional punishments. - Reduced arbitrary and excessive punishment.

Question 6

Enlightenment and Social Contract (Thomas Hobbes, Montesquieu, Rousseau)

Answer 6

• Society requires a social contract, with people sacrificing some freedoms for collective safety. - Hobbes advocated for a sovereign power for order; Montesquieu and Rousseau emphasized laws and ruler-citizen cooperation.
• Set foundational ideas for the rule of law and justice systems. - Basis for modern societal and criminal justice structures.

Question 7

Early Geographic Criminology
Balbi & Guerry (1829); Quetelet (1831/1984)

Answer 7

Early studies showed crime variation across places, with findings like educated areas having higher property crime. Quetelet noted poverty alone doesn’t cause crime, but inequality does.

Question 8

Micro-Place Criminology
Weisburd & McEwen (1997); Sherman (1989); Eck & Weisburd (1995)

Answer 8

Research shows a small percentage of places contribute disproportionately to crime, known as “hot spots.” Strong policy interest emerged around this targeted approach.

Question 9

Modifiable Areal Unit Problem (MAUP)
Openshaw (1984); Ratcliffe & McCullagh (1999)

Answer 9

Aggregation choices (scale and methods) affect analysis results. This remains a critical issue in understanding and comparing crime data accurately.

Question 10

Units of Analysis in Criminology
Erickson & Jenson (1977); Reiss (1986); Sherman et al. (1989)

Answer 10

Scholars debate the best unit (e.g., micro vs. macro) for analyzing crime to inform policy and theory. Decisions should match the research question and policy objectives.

Question 11

Modern “Criminology of Place”
Sherman, Weisburd, National Research Council

Answer 11

Emphasizes empirical study of crime locations and aims to refine methodologies around spatial analysis to deepen insights into crime prevention at specific sites.

Question 12

Early Geographic Criminology
Balbi & Guerry (1829); Quetelet (1831/1984)

Answer 12

Relationship between place and crime. Early studies showed crime variation across places, with surprising findings like educated areas having higher property crime. Quetelet noted poverty alone doesn’t cause crime but inequality does.

Question 13

Chicago School (20th Century)
Park, Burgess, Thrasher, Shaw, McKay

Answer 13

Link between urban environment, social disorganization, and crime. Found urban poverty and social disorganization linked to crime in American cities, establishing the idea of neighborhood-level crime analysis.

Question 14

Micro-Place Criminology
Weisburd & McEwen (1997); Sherman (1989); Eck & Weisburd (1995)

Answer 14

Focus on small units like addresses and street segments. Research shows a small percentage of places contribute disproportionately to crime, known as “hot spots.” Strong policy interest emerged around this targeted approach.

Question 15

Modifiable Areal Unit Problem (MAUP)
Openshaw (1984); Ratcliffe & McCullagh (1999)

Answer 15

Issues in spatial data aggregation impacting crime analysis. Aggregation choices (scale and methods) can affect analysis results. This remains a critical issue in understanding and comparing crime data accurately.

Question 16

Units of Analysis in Criminology
Erickson & Jenson (1977); Reiss (1986); Sherman et al. (1989)

Answer 16

Importance of selecting the appropriate spatial unit for crime study. Scholars debate the best unit (e.g., micro vs. macro) for analyzing crime to inform policy and theory. Decisions should match the research question and policy objectives.

Question 17

Modern “Criminology of Place”
Sherman, Weisburd, National Research Council

Answer 17

Advancing research on the significance of place in crime. Emphasizes empirical study of crime locations and aims to refine methodologies around spatial analysis to deepen insights into crime prevention at specific sites.

Question 18

Foundations of Geographic Criminology
Names: Dupont (1826), Ducpétiaux (1827)

Answer 18

First studies of crime by region. Early analysis of crime distribution across countries showed patterns, e.g., lower crime in the Netherlands compared to France and England.

Question 19

Crime Mapping Innovations
Guerry & Balbi (1829)

Answer 19

Guerry and Balbi were the first to use cartographic methods to map crime data systematically.

Question 20

Role of Wealth and Education in Crime
Guerry (1833, 1864), Quetelet (1831/1984), Greg (1839)

Answer 20

Wealthier, more educated areas had higher property crime rates due to visible inequality. Sparked debates about the social factors driving crime.

Question 21

Emergence of Crime Statistics in England
Rawson (1839), Fletcher (1850)

Answer 21

Focused on crime distribution in England by industry, demographics, and region, revealing higher crime rates in urban areas.

Question 22

Focus on Smaller Units of Crime Analysis
Glyde (1856), Symons (1857), Mayhew (1851, 1865)

Answer 22

Crime variations were studied within smaller city areas, showing local differences and the influence of neighborhood dynamics.

Question 23

Shift in French and English Geographic Criminology
Tarde (1890/1912), Lombroso (1878/2006)

Answer 23

Crime moved from cities to rural areas due to urbanization. Lombroso’s controversial views linked crime to “racial inferiority.”

Question 24

Positivist Criminology Development
Beirne (1987), Landau & Lazarsfeld (1968)

Answer 24

Positivist criminology emerged with a focus on empirical statistical analysis to understand crime distribution and social factors.

Question 25

Chicago School and Urban Crime
Park, Thomas, Wirth, Burgess, Shaw, McKay

Answer 25

The Chicago School focused on neighborhood-level studies within cities, examining the role of social disorganization in crime.

Question 26

Social Disorganization Theory
William Thomas, Shaw & McKay

Answer 26

Social instability and weakened social controls lead to higher crime rates. This theory emphasized the importance of neighborhood cohesion in preventing crime.

Question 27

Concentric Zone Model
Ernest Burgess

Answer 27

Proposed that cities have concentric zones, with higher crime in inner zones due to instability, poverty, and proximity to the center.

Question 28

Spot Maps and Crime Data Mapping
Clifford Shaw, Harvey Zorbaugh

Answer 28

Utilized offender residence data and neighborhood analysis to understand crime patterns and develop mapping techniques for crime hotspots.

Question 29

Critiques of the Chicago Model
Bursik, Robinson, Baldwin & Bottoms

Answer 29

Critiques raised concerns about ecological fallacy and the accuracy of neighborhood-based crime analysis due to offender mobility.

Question 30

Reemergence of Neighborhood Crime Studies
Reiss, Sampson, Skogan, Sherman

Answer 30

A renewed focus on neighborhood dynamics, including the changing nature of crime and its impact on communities over time.

Question 31

Neighborhoods and Crime
Brantingham & Brantingham (1981/1991), Bursik & Webb (1982), Sampson & Groves (1989), Skogan (1987, 1990)

Answer 31

Focus on community dynamics, social networks, and police behavior. Crime prevention strategies emerged based on community cohesion.

Question 32

Routine Activity Theory
Cohen & Felson (1979)

Answer 32

Crime occurs when motivated offenders encounter suitable targets without capable guardians. Shifted focus to situational crime contexts.

Question 33

Crime Pattern Theory
Brantingham & Brantingham (1993)

Answer 33

Crime patterns are influenced by routine activities, with offenders seeking opportunities within their daily routes. Place is central to crime distribution.

Question 34

Situational Crime Prevention
Clarke (1983, 1992, 1995), Cornish & Clarke (1986)

Answer 34

Crime can be reduced by limiting opportunities for it to occur, such as by changing the environment or reducing access to targets.

Question 35

Micro Crime Places and Hot Spots
Sherman et al. (1989), Weisburd et al. (2004)

Answer 35

Crime clusters in micro-places or hot spots. Focusing on these small areas leads to more effective policing and crime prevention.

Question 36

Criminology of Place
Sherman & Weisburd (1995), Eck & Weisburd (2004)

Answer 36

Crime prevention can be achieved by focusing on high-crime locations. Advances in computerized mapping allow more precise place-based analyses.

Question 37

Ecological Fallacy
Robinson (1950)

Answer 37

The risk of making false conclusions about individual behavior based on broader group data. Important to study crime at smaller geographic units to avoid misinterpretation.