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foundations of medicine > water balance, blood and immunity > Flashcards

water balance, blood and immunity Flashcards

1
Q

describe the structure of cell membranes

A

phospholipid bilayer
very flexible,
excellent insulators,
dynamic,
selectively permeable
embedded with proteins

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2
Q

describe the phospholipid bilayer

A

made up of a phosphate head (hydrophilic, lipophobic) and fatty acid tails (hyrophobic, lipophilic)

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3
Q

functions of the cell membrane

A

osmosis
diffusion
cell to cell communication

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4
Q

types of membrane proteins

A

integral
peripheral
enzymes
structural
communication

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5
Q

what are integral proteins

A

span the hydrophobic core of the lipid bilayer (all the way through membrane)

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6
Q

examples of integral proteins

A

receptors
transporters

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7
Q

what are peripheral proteins

A

associated with only the phosphate head of the bilayer (only top of membrane)

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8
Q

what are membrane enzymes

A

membrane enzymes catalyse chemical reactions on the cell membrane

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9
Q

what do structural proteins do

A

anchor the cell membrane to the intracellular skeleton to the EC matrix

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10
Q

how is an electrochemical gradient made?

A

he ions creating the concentration gradients are charged particles there is also a difference in charge across the membrane

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11
Q

different mechanisms of movement of particles across the membrane

A
  • diffusion
  • active transport
  • osmosis
  • filtration
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12
Q

describe the process of endocytosis

A

invagination of cell membrane to form a vesicle which eventually disintegrates on the cytoplasmic surface of the membrane releasing contents

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13
Q

describe the process of exocytosis

A

the reverse process: cells migrate to cell membrane where a vesicle is formed and enters the cell

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14
Q

define diffusion

A

molecules spread from regions of high concentration to regions of low concentration until the concentration is uniform throughout the volume

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15
Q

factors favouring diffusion

A
  • temperature,
  • concentration gradient,
  • size of the molecule, and
  • the presence of a membrane
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16
Q

describe passive diffusion

A

substance moves directly through the lipid bilayer

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17
Q

requirements for passive diffusion

A

molecules must be small, uncharged and lipophilic (hydrophobic)

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18
Q

describe facilitated diffusion

A

substance requires assistance from membrane proteins to cross the lipid bilayer

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19
Q

difference between facilitated diffusion and active transport

A
  • Active transport involves transport proteins, and facilitated diffusion does not
  • active transport pumps molecules against their electrochemical gradient
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20
Q

what is meant by carrier mediated transport systems

A
  • proteins with binding sites for the solutes they transport
  • after binding they undergo a change in shape which exposes the binding site on the other side of the membrane
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21
Q

define osmosis

A

net movement of H2O from regions of high concentration to regions of low concentration

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22
Q

what does osmolarity mean

A

the total number of particles in a solution

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23
Q

osmolarity of normal human plasma

A

285 (300) osmols

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24
Q

what is tonicity

A

the number of non-penetrating particles in a solution

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25
Q

what happens to cells in hypotonic solutions

A

they swell as water enters down a chemical gradient

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26
Q

what happens to cells in hypertonic solutions

A

they shrink as water leaves down a chemical gradient

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27
Q

what is an isosmotic solution

A

a solution with the same total number of solute particles as normal ECF (300)

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28
Q

what does hypo-osmotic mean

A

fewer total solute particles

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29
Q

what does hyper-osmotic mean

A

greater total solute particles

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30
Q

what is an isotonic solution

A

a solution with the same number of non-penetrating solute particles as normal ECF

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31
Q

what does hypotonic mean

A

fewer non-penetrating solute particles

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32
Q

what does hypertonic mean

A

greater non-penetrating solute particles

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33
Q

what does hypertonic mean

A

greater non-penetrating solute particles

34
Q

what causes intravascular haemolysis

A

this is due to lysed (burst) cells introducing protein into ISF, which increases tonicity of ECF in an uncontrolled manner

35
Q

role of the immune system

A

is the body’s ability to resist or eliminate potentially harmful foreign materials (pathogens)

36
Q

major cells of the innate immune system

A
  • dendritic cells
  • complement cells
  • Natural killer cells
  • basophils - least common cell
    -phagocytes
37
Q

what are phagocytes

A

cells of the immune system that track down, engulf and destroy bacteria, pathogens and damaged or dead cells

38
Q

types of phagocytes

A

neutrophils and monocytes

39
Q

stages of phagocytosis

A
  1. movement of the phagocyte toward the microbe
  2. attachment of microbes to phagocyte surface
  3. endocytosis of microbe and formation of phagosome
  4. fusion of phagosome with lysosome
  5. killing of microbe through digestion by enzymes
  6. discharge of waste materials
40
Q

role of eosinophil

A

role is to help combat parasitic infections

41
Q

what are cytokines

A

small proteins which communicate with other cells by binding to specific receptors on these cells producing signalling molecules which lead to many biological effects

42
Q

roles of cytokines

A
  • differentiation
  • activation
  • chemotaxis
  • enhancing cytotoxicity
43
Q

what are primary lymphoid organs

A

places where blood cells are produced and receive their early ability to interact with antigens (maturation)

44
Q

examples of primary lymphoid organs

A

found in bone marrow and thymus

45
Q

what are secondary lymphoid organs

A

sites of lymphocyte activation by antigens, the development of adaptive immune response to antigens by T and B cells

46
Q

where are secondary lymphoid organs found

A

lymph nodes, spleen, mucosal immune system and tonsils

47
Q

function of lymph nodes

A

inducing adaptive immune responses to antigens carried from the tissues by lymph

48
Q

what can T helper cells not do

A

they cannot kill infected cells

49
Q

role of cytotoxic t cells

A

directly kill virus infected cells via perforins and granzymes

50
Q

function of B cells

A

producing antibodies directed against specific antigens

51
Q

where are B cells produced

A

produced and matured in bone marrow

52
Q

what are antibodies

A

proteins that are produced as an immune response against antigens

53
Q

what are the 2 regions of antibodies

A
  • upper region = antigen binding region which is specific and interacts with antigens
  • lower region = Fc region
54
Q

5 types of antibodies

A
  • IgM = first class to be produced
  • IgA = protects mucosal surfaces and resistant to stomach acid
  • IgG = main type of antibody. Binds to many kinds of pathogens and protects body from infection
  • IgE = defends against parasites, causes allergies
  • IgD = unkown function
55
Q

function of the compliment system

A
  • direct lysis of target cells
  • enhance immune response
  • enhance phagocytosis (opsonization)
56
Q

characteristics of active immunity

A
  • the transfer of antibodies or lymphocytes specific for the microbe
  • produced by hosts own immune system
  • takes weeks to develop
  • memory cells produced
  • protection is permanent
57
Q

characteristics of passive immunity

A
  • individuals who have not yet encountered a particular antigen
  • transfer of antibodies/cells from other individuals
  • happens immediately
  • no memory cells are made
  • protection is temporary
58
Q

average circulating volume in a typical adult male

A

5L of blood circulating the body (1L lungs, 3L in systemic venous circulation, 1L in heart and arterial circulation)

59
Q

functions of blood

A
  • plasma = carriage of physiologically active compounds
  • platelets = clotting
  • white blood cells = defence
  • red blood cells = carriage of gas
  • thermoregulation
  • maintenance of ECF pH
60
Q

what is oncotic pressure

A

a form of osmotic pressure induced by the proteins, notably albumin, in a blood vessel’s plasma (blood/liquid) that causes a pull on fluid back into the capillary

61
Q

abundancy and lifespan of erythrocytes

A
  • most abundant blood cell, red blood cell
  • 120 day lifespan
62
Q

lifespan of platelets

A

10 days

63
Q

lifespan of platelets

A

10 days

64
Q

function of a red blood cell

A

carries oxygen from the lungs to all parts of the body

65
Q

function of erythropoietin

A

a protein concerned with gas transport

66
Q

what enhances secretion of erythropoietin

A

when oxygen delivery to kidneys is reduced (hypoxia) this may be due to:
- haemorrhage
- anaemia
- cardiac dysfunction
- lung disease

67
Q

5 main types of white blood cells

A

neutrophils, eosinophils and basophils are granulocytes
monocytes and lymphocytes are agranulocytes

68
Q

most abundant white blood cell

A

neutrophils

69
Q

least abundant white blood cell

A

basophils

70
Q

describe red blood cells

A
  • erythrocytes
  • erythropoiesis (red blood cell formation) is accelerated by erythropoietin and turns an erythroblast into an erythrocyte
71
Q

what happens to monocytes

A

they migrate to connective tissues where they become macrophages and live for 3 months

72
Q

how is leukopoiesis controlled

A

leukopoiesis is controlled by a cocktail of cytokines

73
Q

function of platelets

A
  • adhere to damaged vessel walls and exposed connective tissue to mediate blood clotting
  • they do not adhere to healthy intact endothelium
74
Q

role of thrombopoietin in platelet formation

A

regulating the expansion and maturation of megakaryocytes

75
Q

what is meant by haematocrit

A

measures the volume of red blood cells compared to the total blood volume

76
Q

normal haematocrit

A

40-50%

77
Q

what can effect haematocrit levels

A
  • Living at a high altitude.
  • Pregnancy.
  • Significant recent blood loss.
  • Recent blood transfusion.
  • Severe dehydration.
78
Q

what is blood viscosity

A

how thick blood is compared to water

79
Q

effect of haematocrit on blood viscosity

A

50% increase in haematocrit increases viscosity by approximately 100%

80
Q

effect of temperature on blood viscosity

A

increase in temp decreases viscosity (1 degree to 2%)

81
Q

effect of flow rate on blood viscosity

A

decreased flow rate increases viscosity

foundations of medicine (5 decks)

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