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foundations of medicine > nerves and muscles > Flashcards

nerves and muscles Flashcards

1
Q

gross structure of the brain

A

Meninges, sulcus, gyrus, cerebellum, cerebrum (4 lobes), diencephalon (thalamus and hypothalamus), brainstem (midbrain, pons, medulla), cranial nerves

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2
Q

gross structure of the spinal cord

A

Grey vs. white matter, dorsal vs. ventral horn, dorsal root ganglion, spinal nerves, spinal tracts

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3
Q

describe the pairs of spinal nerves

A

31 pairs:
- 8 cervical
- 12 thoracic
- 5 lumbar
- 5 sacral
- 1 coccygeal

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4
Q

types of neuron

A
  • afferent neurons = sensory (PNS)
  • interneurons = CNS
  • efferent neurons = (CNS)
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5
Q

describe neuron structure

A

dendrites
cell body
initial segment
axon
axon terminals

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6
Q

dendrite function

A

receives information

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7
Q

initial segment function

A

axon hilock triggers action potential

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8
Q

cell body function

A

contains nucleus

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9
Q

axon function

A

sends action potential

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10
Q

axon terminal function

A

releases neurotransmitter

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11
Q

oligodendrocytes function and location

A

form myelin sheath (CNS)

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12
Q

astroglia function and location

A

maintain external environment for neurons and form blood brain barrier (CNS)

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13
Q

microglia function and location

A

macrophages of the CNS

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14
Q

ependymal cells function and location

A

produce cerebrospinal fluid (CNS)

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15
Q

schwann cells function and location

A

form myelin sheath (PNS)

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16
Q

The resting membrane potential is dominated by what

A

the permeability of the resting membrane to K+

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17
Q

types of graded potential

A

generator potentials,
postsynaptic potentials,
end plate potentials,
pacemaker potentials

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18
Q

function of graded potentials

A

Their job is to decide when an action potential is fired

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19
Q

properties of graded potentials

A

Graded, decremental, depolarising or hyperpolarising, can summate

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20
Q

how are EPSPs generated

A

by opening Na+/K+ channels or closing leaky K+ channels

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21
Q

how are IPSPs generated

A

by opening Cl channels or opening K channels

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22
Q

example of demyelinating disease in CNS

A

Multiple sclerosis

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23
Q

example of demyelinating disease in PNS

A

Guillain-Barré syndrome

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24
Q

structure of the neuromuscular junction

A

terminal filled with vesicles containing acetylcholine (ACh)

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25
Q

process of neuromuscular transmission.

A
  1. action potential in motor neuron
  2. opens voltage gated Ca channels in presynaptic terminal
  3. fusion of veiscles
  4. ACh diffuses across synaptic cleft
  5. ACh binds to ACh nicotinic receptors
  6. this opens ligand-gated Na/K channels
  7. evokes end plate potential
  8. this always depolarises membrane to threshold
  9. which opens voltage gated sodium channels
  10. and evokes action potential
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26
Q

examples of excitatory neurotransmitters

A

glutamate, epinephrine and norepinephrine

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27
Q

examples of inhibitory neurotransmitters

A

Gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA), glycine and serotonin

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28
Q

what is meant by a receptor

A

A molecule inside or on the surface of a cell that binds to a specific substance and causes a specific effect in the cell

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29
Q

function of an agonist

A

mimic the normal effect of the receptor

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30
Q

affinity and efficacy of a full agonist

A

full efficacy and full affinity

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31
Q

affinity and efficacy of a partial agonist

A

full affinity and partial efficacy

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32
Q

function of an antagonist

A

block normal action of receptor

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33
Q

affinity and efficacy of an antagonist

A

full affinity and no efficacy

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34
Q

relationship between agonist concentration and effect

A

an agonist in the presence of a competitive agonist will reach the same response but at a slower rate due to the effect of a competitive antagonist

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35
Q

describe selective agonists

A

drugs that activate only some receptors

36
Q

example of selective agonist

A

salbutamol - a β2 agonist

37
Q

describe selective antagonists

A

drugs that block only some of those receptors

38
Q

example of selective antagonist

A

propranolol - a β1 and β2 antagonist

39
Q

where are cutaneous receptors found

A

distal ends of the primary sensory axon

40
Q

what are muscle spindles

A

proprioceptors that consist of intrafusal muscle fibers enclosed in a sheath (spindle)

41
Q

function of muscle spindles

A

spindles are stretched when the muscle lengthens

42
Q

is skeletal muscle striated or non-striated

43
Q

what is thick filament

44
Q

what is thin filament

45
Q

describe the sequence of excitation-contraction coupling

A
  1. depolarization of the plasma membrane and its membrane invaginations (the t-tubular system) by an action potential
  2. transduction of the depolarization signal to the sarcoplasmic reticulummembrane
  3. activation of Ca2+ release from the SR and subsequent global elevation of intracellular Ca2+
  4. transient interaction of Ca2+ with contractile proteins leading to muscle contraction
  5. return of Ca2+ back to levels at resting conditions and muscle relaxation
46
Q

what is tension

A

force exerted by the muscle

47
Q

what is load

A

force exerted on muscle

48
Q

describe isometric twitches

A

contraction with constant lenght

49
Q

describe isotonic twitches

A

contraction with shortening length

50
Q

describe sliding filament theory

A

a muscle fibre contracts when myosin filaments pull actin filaments closer together and thus shorten sarcomeres within a fibre

51
Q

describe tetanus

A

When the frequency of muscle contraction is such that the maximal force is tension is generated without any relaxation of the muscle

52
Q

is smooth muscle striated or non-striated

A

non-striated

53
Q

examples of stretch reflex

A

patellar tendon or knee-jerk reflex

54
Q

what reflex is mediated by golgi tendon organs

A

inverse stretch reflex (clasp knife reflex)

55
Q

what nerves control GTO reflex

A

1b afferent nerves

56
Q

what is ipsilateral reflex

A

The reflexes in which the response (reflex) occurs on one side of the body as the stimulus

57
Q

what is contralateral reflex

A

reflex occurs on the opposite side of the body from the stimulus

58
Q

what makes up the autonomic nervous system

A

sympathetic
enteric
and parasympathetic

59
Q

describe the sympathetic nervous system

A

fight or flight

60
Q

describe sympathetic nervous outflow

A

thoracic T1-12 and lumbar L1-2 regions

61
Q

characteristics of sympathetic ganglia

A
  • ganglia lie close to the spinal cord in the sympathetic chain or in collateral ganglia
  • pre-ganglionic (mylenated) fibre is shorter than post ganglionic fibre
62
Q

describe parasympathetic nervous system

A

rest and digest

63
Q

parasympathetic nervous outflow

A

cranial (3, 7, 9, 10) and sacral (S2-4)

64
Q

characteristic of parasympathetic ganglia

A
  • ganglia lie close to or within the target
  • pre-ganglionic (mylenated) fibre is longer than the post ganglionic (unmylenated) fibre
65
Q

what are autonomic transmitters

A

acetylcholine
noradrenaline

66
Q

what does acetylcholine act on

A

cholinergic receptors: nicotinic and muscarinic

67
Q

what does noradrenaline act on

A

acts on adrenergic receptors: a and B receptors

68
Q

sympathetic innervation of the eye

A
  • activates a1 receptors on the radial muscle of the iris making it contract and causing the pupil to dilate
  • also activates b2 receptors on the ciliary muscle which relaxes and focuses the eye far away
69
Q

parasympathetic innervation of the eye

A
  • activates muscarinic receptors on the sphincter muscle of the iris causing it to contract and constrict the pupil
  • activates muscarinic receptors on ciliary muscle around the lens making it contract and the eye closes up
70
Q

sympathetic innervation of the heart

A
  • activates B1 receptors on the pacemaker cells which increases heart rate
  • activates B1 receptors on the myocytes which increases strength of contraction
71
Q

parasympathetic innervation of the heart

A
  • activates muscarinic receptors on pacemaker cells which decreases heart rate
  • little effect on myocytes which has little effect on strength of contraction
72
Q

sympathetic innervation of the lungs

A

activates B2 receptors on smooth muscle of airways causing the muscle to relax and dilate the airways

73
Q

parasympathetic innervation of the lungs

A

activates muscarinic receptors making smooth muscle contract and constricts airways

74
Q

sympathetic innervation of blood vessels

A
  • activates a1 receptors on smooth muscle of vessels causing them to contract and blood flow to decrease
  • activates B2 receptors on smooth muscle of vessels causing the muscle to relax and blood flow to increase
75
Q

parasympathetic innervation of blood vessels

A

usually no effect

76
Q

how is innervation of salivary glands described

A

dual innervation with non antagonistic actions

77
Q

sympathetic innervation of salivary glands

A

activates B receptors which stimulate thick secretion rich in enzymes

78
Q

parasympathetic innervation of salivary glands

A

activates muscarinic receptors which stimulates profuse water secretion

79
Q

sympathetic innervation of the bladder

A
  • activates B2 receptors on smooth muscle of bladder wall which relaxes smooth muscle and reduces pressure
  • activates a1 receptors on smooth muscle of sphincter which contracts the muscle and stops urination
80
Q

parasympathetic innervation of the bladder

A
  • activates muscarinic receptors on bladder wall causing it to contract and increase pressure
  • activates muscarinic receptors on sphincter causing it to relax and causing urination
81
Q

sympathetic innervation of the reproductive tract

A

activates a1 receptors on smooth muscle of urethra causing ejaculation

82
Q

parasympathetic innervation of the reproductive tract

A

activates muscarinic receptors on smooth muscle of corpus cavernosum relaxing smooth muscle and causing erection

83
Q

what is botulinum toxin used for

A

treating muscle spasm
used in cosmetic procedures

84
Q

what are anti-cholinesterases used for

A

treating mnyasthenia gravis
reversing action of non-polarising blockers
countering botulinum poisoning

85
Q

function of muscarinic receptor agonist

A

Mimic the effect of the parasympathetic system

86
Q

function of muscarinic receptor antagonists

A

Block effects of the parasympathetic system

foundations of medicine (5 decks)

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