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Environment And Resources > Water > Flashcards

Water Flashcards

1
Q

A few facts…

A

18% of the population do not have access to treated water

90% of urban dwellers have safe water compared to 62% of rural

Since 1950 the number of deaths due to floods = the number due to earthquakes and volcanoes combined

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2
Q

Input =

A

All forms of water hitting the earth’s surface

E.g. rain, snow, hail, fog drip

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3
Q

Precipitation =

A

When vapour cools to saturation point

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4
Q

Causes of precipitation

A

ADIABATIC DECOMPRESSION
- forced to rise e.g. over mountains

TWO AIR MASSES - common in the UK!!!
- warm, moist air forces over cold air/mix

COLD CONTACT
E.g. warm air from the sea blowing over cold land

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5
Q

Types of rain

A

OROGRAPHIC

  • rainshadow on Lee side
  • E vs W UK (Durham Pennines)

CONVECTIONAL

  • rising warm air condenses
  • short duration, high intensity
  • common in continental interiors e.g. Alps/mid W US rather than UK

FRONTAL/CYCLONIC

  • anti-clockwise rotating system in the northern hemisphere
  • high duration, low intensity on the warm front
  • low duration, high intensity on the cold front (showers)
  • UK day of rain followed by a day of showers
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6
Q

UK rainfall patterns

A

Most air systems from the N Atlantic = high levels in the west due to…

1) cold contact
2) adiabatic e.g. Snowdonia

N.B. North York Moors high rainfall if weather system from the east

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7
Q

Measuring rainfall

A

1) point measurement

2) spatial measurement

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8
Q

Point measurement

  • how many buckets does the UK require?
A

STORAGE RAIN GAUGES

  • bucket with funnel
  • daily/monthly data

RECORDING RAIN GAIGES

  • measures intensity by measuring the no. of electric volts and capacity of buckets
  • “seesaw mechanism”

The UK usually has 1 bucket per 60km2

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9
Q

Spatial measurement

A

Using a weather radar or satellite

Advantages;
- good for forecasting

Disadvantages;

  • can’t calibrate against real rainfall parameters
  • can’t tell how intense
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10
Q

Using rainfall data

A

1) areal rainfall
2) depth-area duration curves
3) probable maximum rainfall
4) rainfall statistics

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11
Q

Determination of areal rainfall

A

THIESSEN POLYGON

  • area weighted rainfall
  • lines drawn half way between gauges and joined up to form polygons
  • can see AREAS where rainfall is highest

ISOHYETAL METHOD

  • contouring
  • isohyet = line joining two points of the same rainfall

HYPSOMETRIC/MULTIQUADRATIC METHODS
- area weighting like thiesson but ALSO adjusting for topography in 2/3D

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12
Q

Depth-area-duration curves

  • what do they tell us?
A

How much?
What time period?
Where?

Taken as maximum values

BUT
- lots of data needed

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13
Q

How do we relate point estimates to depth-area-duration?

A

UK has an areal reduction factor designed for flood analysis

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14
Q

Rainfall data for the UK examples…

A

Sprinkling Tarn, Lake District 350mm/day

Füsson, Barvaria (Germany) 12cm/10 mins

East India - 13 m/yr

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15
Q

Probable maximum rainfall

A

How bad can rainfall be?

Based on real observations of rainfall of certain durations

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16
Q

Rainfall statistics

A

= frequency distribution at a site

Estimate likelihood and quantity of rain

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17
Q

Interception =

A

When precipitation lands on vegetation rather than land

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18
Q

Interception loss =

A

Amount of rain never reaching the ground

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19
Q

Throughfall =

A

Amount of rain that reaches the surface (including drip and stem flow)

Generally less than gross rainfall

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20
Q

Evaporation =

A

Loss from the earth’s surface as water vapour, including loss through transpiration of plants

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21
Q

Controls on evaporation

A

1) air/surface temp
2) humidity
3) solar radiation

4) wind speed
- otherwise stagnates and saturates

5) nature of evaporation surface
- rough = turbulent = increases

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22
Q

Reason for negative potential evaporation values

A

Water released from groundwater stores/fell as snowfall
- N.B. Actual and potential evaporation comparison works best on a long term basis when storage changes have less of an effect

Water table change

Recording details e.g. rainfall 11.55pm 31st Jan recorded as stream flow on 1st Feb
- water year 1st Oct (seasons)

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23
Q

Effective rainfall =

A

Amount of flow from the catchment (mm)

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24
Q

A few facts about the UK…

A

18,000 megalitres of water are supplied every day making £6.5billion turnover

1584 boreholes, 666 reservoirs, 662 river abstractions

Costs 62p/day/household

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25
Q

Runoff =

A

Gravitational movement of water in surface channels (of any size)

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26
Q

Why are we interested in runoff?

A

It is the process of getting water to us

Floods

Droughts

Transport/pollution dilution

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27
Q

Direct precipitation =

A

Directly enters stream

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28
Q

Quick flow =

A

Rapid response to rainfall, rainfall goes up

N.B. Can be old water or new water

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29
Q

Old water =

A

In catchment/soil/ground prior to event and pushed out by rain

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30
Q

New water =

A

water coming in with the storm

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31
Q

What is Horton’s hypothesis?

A

The soil surface partitions water into surface flow and groundwater flow

Controlled by the infiltration capacity of the soil surface which decreases during a storm bc the soil surface “crusts over”

= INFILTRATION EXCESS RUNOFF
- hydrograph dominated by NEW water from overland flow

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32
Q

What is Hewlett’s hypothesis?

A

Most water infiltrates and soils become saturated, decreasing the infiltration capacity

Runoff generated only in saturated areas of catchment, varying in size

Contact rivers join up to form hydrograph

= “SATURATION EXCESS RUNOFF”
- hydrograph dominated by OLD water

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33
Q

When does Horton’s hypothesis work?

A

Bare soils in arid regions

Although source areas are variable so Hewlett better

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34
Q

Why does Hewlett work?

A

1) doesn’t rely on overland flow which is actually v rare
2) heavy water/oxygen isotopes due to evaporation prove that they’ve been in the soil for a while
3) contrasting chemistry of incoming rain storm and water coming out = prove old water

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35
Q

When does Hewlett not work?

A

Source areas may not necessarily be attached by streams, may be isolated patches that grow towards streams

Thought some of the water was still new when actually old

In some cases can use Horton as a special case of Hewlett

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36
Q

Types of graphs

A

Simple rainfall/runoff

Unit hydrograph

  • how much runoff per unit of rainfall
  • requires lots of info
  • has to be adjusted for each location since each location has a different response
  • difficult to calculate

Stage (river height) relationship

  • how much increase in height for a given flow
  • useful for flood prediction
  • has a maximum (beyond = flood)
  • COMPOUND CRUMP WEIR

Frequency analysis*

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37
Q

Compound crump weir

A

V notch for a fixed cross section that responds to changes in height

Sensitive for lowest flows
- jumps correspond to step changes in the weir profile

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38
Q

Frequency analysis

A

A) FLOW DURATION CURVE

B) ANNUAL MAXIMUM SERIES

C) ANNUAL MINIMUM SERIES

D) PEAKS OVER THRESHOLD (partial duration series)

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39
Q

Flow duration curve

A

Flow vs %exceedance
%exceedance = how much of the time flow is greater than this value

:) likely resource/dilution (plot in terms of exceedance, like a cumulative frequency type plot)

:( not good for drought/flood prediction

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40
Q

Annual maximum and minimum series

A

Good for flood prediction
Looks at the return period

:( only one data point per year - wasted data???

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41
Q

Peaks over threshold

A

Allows for more than one data point per year if an important flow level is known

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42
Q

Return period =

A

Probability in years of the same event occurring

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43
Q

Gauging station =

A

Structure with a fixed cross section on which stage and or velocity can be measured

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44
Q

Groundwater =

How much of the earth’s water supply comes from groundwater?

How much of London/Denmark’s?

A

A component of the hydrological cycle in the subsurface

50% earth’s water supply

75%

95%

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45
Q

Recharge =

A

Water underground following into the unsaturated zone

- prevented by interflow

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46
Q

Groundwater profile

A

Vadose zone

Capillary fringe

Water table

Phreatic zone

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47
Q

Vadose zone =

A

Unsaturated

- pore spaces are water or air

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48
Q

Capillary fringe =

A

Start of unsaturated zone

Area where water is attracted upwards to

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49
Q

Water table =

A

Where water pressure = atmospheric pressure

NOT THE TRANSITION BETWEEN SATURATED/UNSATURATED ZONES

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50
Q

Phreatic zone

A

Saturated

- pore spaces = water

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51
Q

Capillary force =

A

Force of attraction due to:

SURFACE TENSION
- attraction between water molecules

WETTING EFFECT

  • balance between
    1) attraction between liquid molecules
    2) adsorption on the surface
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52
Q

Wetting surfaces

A

Water is attracted to a surface causing capillary rise (adsorption of fluid up a surface) outweighing gravity and its own surface tension

Example: :) water
:( mercury

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53
Q

Specific yield =

Effective porosity =

A

Amount of water drained/drop of water in the water table

Sometimes called effective porosity = proportion of void space capable of transmitting a fluid

Due to capillary forces

ALWAYS LESS THAN POROSITY

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54
Q

Porosity =

A

Proportion that is void space, a fraction of the rock volume

Varies 0-60%

Can have “blind pores”

55
Q

Permeability =

A

How easily fluid can move through a rock

56
Q

Aquifer =

A

A rock or sediment with sufficient permeability to supply water in useful quantities

57
Q

Aquitard =

A

An aquifer with very slow movement

A rock/sediment with insufficient permeability to supply water in useful quantities

58
Q

Aquiclude =

A

An aquifer which excludes water I.e. water cannot get in or out

A rock/sediment with insufficient permeability to supply water in useful quantities

59
Q

UK AQUIFERS

A

The NE has abundant surface resources so aquifers are not necessary BUT they are important in the S/E

CHALK:
Limestone = fracture porosity
London
UK’s major aquifer

PERMO TRIASSIC SANDSTONE:
Intergranular porosity
Birmingham/Nottingham

TERTIARY:
Large number of smaller aquifers
Local

~LONDON~

  • population live in towns around rather than the city itself
  • city underexploits water resources
  • towns around over exploit

~ESSEX~
- expanding population without much water supply or recharge

60
Q

What does the size (height) of the capillary fringe depend on?

A

Sediment porosity - think smaller pores = bigger suction for a given amount of water

The capillary fringe moves up and down with the water table

61
Q

Confined aquifer

A

Bound by aquitards
Water comes up under pressure

ARTISAN BASIN

62
Q

Unconfined aquifer

A

Not bound or has exposure at the surface

Has direct recharge from/”through” the unsaturated zone when precipitation etc occurs

63
Q

Perched aquifer

A

Bound beneath by an aquitard
Situated above the regional water table
= SPRING LINES

  • provides year round water supply to villages
  • saturated rock above the water table
64
Q

Potentiometric surface =

A

The water table for an aquifer which isn’t at the surface (confined)

  • not within the aquifer
  • the point the water table would rise to if it could

Keep drilling down and eventually water will come above the ground = ARTESIAN WELL

  • flows under own pressure
  • “artesian basin”
65
Q

Artesian basin =

A

Where the potentiometric surface comes above the ground surface

Classic desert oasis

66
Q

Elastic storage =

A

When confined aquifers under pressure behave SLIGHTLY elastically and depressurise, giving more water than thought

E.g. Dakota sandstone produces more water than was thought possible due to a fall in the potentiometric surface

67
Q

What is the flow in aquifers governed by?

A

1) the area it flows through
2) the head gradient
3) hydraulic conductivity

68
Q

Head =

A

Elevation + pressure (m)

WATER WILL ONLY FLOW WHERE THERE IS A HEAD DIFFERENCE

69
Q

Hydraulic conductivity =

A

Intrinsic material property, the measure of:

1) ease with which a fluid flows
- due to pore size

2) ease the porous rock allows passage
- due to tortuosity

70
Q

Suction =

A

Negative pressures ABOVE the water table which prevents unsaturated flow into wells

  • water table; water pressure = atmospheric pressure
  • negative pressures above
71
Q

What causes suction?

A

1) CAPILLARY FORCES
- small grain size = small pores = large capillary forces

2) ADSORPTION
- surface charge dependent and therefore grain size dependent
- also slightly mineral dependent
- :):)organic matter :)clay :(quartz

3) OSMOSIS
- requires a semi permeable membrane (roots)
- due to differences in ionic concentrations

72
Q

Total head =

A

Elevation head + suction head + osmotic head

73
Q

Moisture characteristic =

A

Matric suction (cm) vs volumetric water content (%)

  • suction increases as water content decreases because there is a greater force for a given amount of water
  • it’s shape depends on pore sizes; smaller pore sizes = greater suction i.e. sand < silt < clay (can use the moisture characteristic to measure this)
74
Q

Air entry value =

A

The matric suction value that must be exceeded before air enters the soil pores

  • air won’t enter the system until the suction of the largest pore space is overcome
  • largest pore space = smallest suction
  • also last place water will go because of this
75
Q

Wilt point =

A

Suction at which roots find it difficult to extract the water needed (permanent = death)

76
Q

Field capacity =

A

Amount of soil moisture/content held in soil after excess water drained away and rate of downward movement has decreased

Relate to air entry value; suction at which pores won’t drain under gravity

E.g. of pores are too big it won’t be able to hold water against gravity

77
Q

Hysterisis =

A

Amount of water contained in a pore at a given suction due to the ink bottle or contact angle effects

PORES ALWAYS EMPTY AT LARGER SUCTIONS THAN THEY FILL AT

78
Q

Ink bottle effect: drying

A

(Pores = wide bodies and narrow necks)

Won’t drain last neck because there’s too much suction in neck
- water held by this

= hold onto more water than expected

79
Q

Ink bottle effect: wetting

A

Can’t get water in because suction is too low in the body

= takes in less water than expected

80
Q

Contact angle effect: drying

A

Contact angle decreases = bit of water there held higher

= hold more than expected

81
Q

Contact angle effect: wetting

A

Meniscus turns corner in neck = contact angle increases
(“Artificially increases the contact angle”)

= takes in less water

82
Q

Flow and hydraulic conductivity

A

Water moves from low to high suction

K(unsat) < K(sat)

  • less effective cross section
  • increased tortuosity
83
Q

Hydraulic conductivity of clay

A

Clay is always tortuous BUT it’s low pore size means that it is good at holding water

  • low water contents = high effective porosity

I.e. K(unsat clay) > K(unsat sand)

84
Q

Zero flux plane =

A

Plane which divides water moving up to water moving down

Water moves up when evaporation and therefore suction takes place
Water moves down in a soil at equilibrium

  • gravity does also pull down here = zero flux plane

Convergent = drying

Divergent = wetting

85
Q

Measuring unsaturated properties

A

1) depth to water table
- piezometer

2) moisture content
- gravimetric method
- capacitance probe
- gypsum
- neutron probe

3) suction
- tensiometer

86
Q

Gravimetric method

A

Weigh/dry samples of known volume

:) easy once you have the sample
:( disruptive

87
Q

Capacitance probe

A

Two probes, measure the dielectric constant (which is related to moisture content)
:) favoured
:( measures average
:( disruptive

88
Q

Gypsum

A

Sparingly soluble
= measure resistance/electrical conductivity with two electrodes

:( have to bury = disruptive

89
Q

Neutron probs

A

Uses a fast neutron source and measures the “back scatter” off the water molecules

:) only requires a dipwell
:) most info for disturbance

90
Q

Tensiometer

A

Semi porous cup which loses/gains water
Measure the pressure change with a barometer

:( quite disruptive and interferes with the system

91
Q

Infiltration capacity =

A

The capacity of soil to take in water (m/s)

92
Q

Bypass flow =

A

Flows rapidly to the water table - macropore/lateral/overland flow

93
Q

Macropores =

A

Between 30 microns to 2mm big
Drain under gravity
Active at suctions lower than field capacity

94
Q

Types of macropore

A

FAUNAL
- burrows/wormhole

ROOT HOLES

CRACKS

NATURAL SOIL
- e.g. cutans

95
Q

Measuring macroporosity

A

SUCTION PLATE
:( assumes macropores operate at suction which they don’t

TRACERS

  • measures pores doing transporting under gravity
  • anything at the bottom = g = macropores
96
Q

Nature of macropore flow =

A

Balance between input rate (1) and infiltration capacity (2)

(1)(2)
- either the rate is too fast or infiltration capacity has decreased
= unsaturated overland flow and unsaturated macropore flow

If (2) is exceeded because the soil is saturated
= saturated overland flow and saturated macropore flow

97
Q

Two flow domains

A

1) MATRIX
- darcian flow
- slow

2) MACROPORES
- non darcian (turbulent pipe)
- fast

98
Q

Lateral interflow =

A

Subsurface, horizontal/subhorizontal macropore flow

  • layers within the soil have an infiltration capacity and can act like a soil surface

Normal macropore flow is VERTICAL

99
Q

Issues with bypass follow

A

POLLUTION

  • rapist movement of pollutants off fields and through soil
  • limits opportunity for degradation/adsorption to retard or diminish pollution

Predict times of bypass flow = protect water intakes

100
Q

UK WATER QUALITY SINCE 1990

A

36% rivers have increased biological quality

44% chemical quality

101
Q

Who defines water quality?

A

1) drinking water inspectorate
- water from companies that ENTERS property

2) environment agency (sepa)
- “controlled waters” e.g. rivers/lakes/groundwater/estuaries/bathing waters

102
Q

Physical characteristics of water quality

A

Temperature

Transparency

Colour

Turbidity

Suspended solids

Total Dissolved Solids (TDS)

Conductivity

pH

103
Q

Measuring temperature

A

Seasonal/diurnal variations

Hot water = pollutant
- salmon :( 22 degrees

Some water bodies show stratification

104
Q

Measuring transparency

A

Secchi disk
Indicators of biological activity
Typical values 0.5-15m

105
Q

Measuring colour

A

By light absorbable

Brown/yellow = organic matter

  • react with Cl to disinfect = chloroform
  • can’t use too much if it’s really bad because it’s carcinogenic
106
Q

Measuring turbidity

A

Particulate materials prevents light penetration

Measure with a nephelometer

107
Q

Measuring suspended solids

A

Dry weight of particles retained by a 0.4um filter

108
Q

TDS

A

Once through the suspended solids filter, evaporate down

Weigh

Similar to salinity

109
Q

Measuring conductivity

A

More TDS = more conductive

Use electrodes

If in v saline environment easier to use TDS as an indicator

110
Q

Chemical water quality

A

Dissolved in organic substances

Organic substances

Dissolved oxygen

Dissolved CO2

111
Q

Dissolved inorganic substances

A

Rainwater picks up atmosphere gases

54% evaporates = concentrated in surface waters

Cations: Na, K (agricultural), Ca, Mg
Anions: HCO3- (major buffer of natural waters), Cl-, SO42-, nitrate, phosphate

112
Q

Organic substances

A

Particulate organic carbon (POC)

  • bacteria/dead organisms etc
  • organic carbon content of residue from filtering sample

Dissolved organic carbon (DOC)

  • WATER COLOUR
  • organic carbon content of filtrate of sample

Total organic carbon (TOC) = POC + DOC

113
Q

Dissolved oxygen

A

Saturation is lower at higher temperatures

Seawater holds less oxygen

Algal mats can boost it to 150-200% saturation

Vital for life

114
Q

BOD vs COD

A

For water quality control

Biochemical Oxygen Demand = amount of oxygen required for bacteria to degrade organic components (5 days)

Chemical Oxygen Demand = total chemicals (inorganic and organic) in water (on the spot)

BOD/COD indicates toxicity
High ratio = low toxicity
Low ratio = requires treatment

115
Q

Dissolved CO2

A

Hardness and alkalinity

- harder water has a higher buffering capacity

116
Q

Water hardness =

A

The capacity to precipitate Ca and Mg compounds with soap or heating

117
Q

Advantages of biological surveys

A

Integrates time and conditions
- physical properties e.g. conductivity only measure at THAT time or condition

Environmental Quality Standard contains biological standards to meet

Need them for discharge consents

Valuable in management studies

118
Q

Biological water quality characteristics

A

Indicator species

Community measures

Aquatic flora

Aquatic fauna

Disease

119
Q

Indicator species

A

Benthic macroinvertebrates

Their presence/absence

120
Q

Community measures

A

Kick samples (RIVER SPECIFIC)

Plankton studies

Fish counts

121
Q

Aquatic flora

A

Bacteria

Pathogens e.g. salmonella

Cyanobacteria

  • dominant phytoplankton
  • deplete O and release toxins

Algae
- can see long term core trends using chlorophyll concentrations and cell counts

122
Q

Aquatic fauna

A

Microbenthic invertebrates

Kick samples

Flatworms, worms, leeches, snails, limpets, shrimp, waterlice etc etc

123
Q

Impacts of pollutants on water quality

A

Organic wastes

Nutrients

Inert solids

Metals

Pesticides

Waste heat

Pathogens

Acid deposition

Critical loads

124
Q

Organic wastes

A

From domestic sewage/farms
Causes oxygen depletion so you measure BOD/COD
Also causes eutrophication

125
Q

Nutrients

A

Mainly nitrates and phosphates

Cause eutrophication by oxygen depletion
- algal blooms

126
Q

Inert solids

A

Sediment e.g. sand/clay stops light penetration and causes excessive sedimentation

127
Q

Metals

A

Most are toxic except for Na/Ca/K/M
Some companies add phosphates to make insoluble metal phosphates
Accumulate in sediments and organisms

128
Q

Pesticides

A

Toxic
UK = herbicides
Climate change may lead to using them further north

129
Q

Waste heat

A

From power stations

Reduces oxygen stability and increases oxygen consumption rates
= decreases oxygen concentration

130
Q

Pathogens

A 
Cholera
Typhoid
Salmonella
Polio
Hepatitis
Weil’s disease
Cryptospiridia
131
Q

Acid deposition

A

Industrial gases NOx and SOx

Causes acidification and eutrophication

132
Q

Critical loads

A

Assessing the extent a system can accept a pollutant

Largely developed for acidification

133
Q

Rivers have more…

A 
Si
Fe
Al
P
N
DOC
134
Q

Oceans have more…

A 
Na
Ca
Mg
K
Cl
SO4

Environment And Resources (4 decks)

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