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Environment And Resources > More Resources > Flashcards

More Resources Flashcards

1
Q

The value chain

A

Acquire
- acquire the acreage (land)

Explore
- find petroleum

Appraise
- determine size/complexity

Develop
- drill wells and build facility

Produce
- get the petroleum out

Abandon
- remove facility

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2
Q

“The petroleum system”

A

Source

Reservoir

Seal

Trap

(Migration and timing)

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3
Q

Reservoir =

A

In the subsurface
Filled with water
Petroleum displaces

POROSITY - storage
Net:gross

PERMEABILITY - flow

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4
Q

Formation volume factors

A

Oil shrinks at the surface
- gases exsolved in the subsurface

Gas expands at the surface (due to lower pressure)

> > > how much actually there?

> > > how much left in the subsurface?
- oil ~65%

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5
Q

Tools for exploration and production

A

Satellite images

Seismic

Core and cuttings

Outcrop data

Gravity and magnetic

Wire line logs

Fluid samples

Petroleum seepage

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6
Q

Source =

A

Organic material preserved in sediments

Bury and heat

Crack

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7
Q

Wireline logs

A

Tools run into well on a wireline, measure

Rock/fluid/void properties

P, T

Fluid flow

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8
Q

Gamma log

A

Sandstones and limestones have a low natural radioactivity

Mudstones have a high natural reactivity due to clay minerals and feldspars…

  • K!!!
  • U
  • Th
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9
Q

What does petroleum play require?

A

Mature source rock (buried deep enough to convert solid phase organic material to oil and gas)

Reservoir

Regional seal

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10
Q

Plays =

A

Reservoirs/seal combinations

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11
Q

Prospect =

A

Petroleum target ready to be drilled

  • trap is mapped
  • size/key risks defined
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12
Q

Salt withdrawal =

A

Less dense = can rise and create a gap

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13
Q

Appraisal =

A

Determine if it can be developed economically

  • how big
  • reservoir architecture
  • reservoir quality
  • compartmentalised?
  • fluid contacts?
  • what are the petroleum fluids?
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14
Q

Baffles and barriers =

A

Low permeability rocks

Baffle = small, oil can flow around

Think about vertical/horizontal drilling

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15
Q

Stabilisation wedges =

A

7 25 Gt wedges in order to halt CO2 and find alternatives

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16
Q

Stabilisation wedges - examples

A

1) increase fuel economy of 2 billion cars 30-60mpg
2) reduce electricity use in homes/offices/stores by 25%

Replace coal…
3) double nuclear power

4) x40 wind power
5) x700 solar power
6) stop deforestation
7) CCS at 800 large coal fired power plants

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17
Q

How does CCS work?

A

Capture

A) compress - transport - inject/store in fluid state

B) sequester = react to form an inert material

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18
Q

What can you react CO2 with to form an inert material?

A

Fly ash/combustion residues

Peridotite

C-Fix carbon concrete

Novacem

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19
Q

Types of carbon capture

A

Pre combustion

Oxyfuel

Post combustion

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20
Q

Pre combustion carbon capture

A

Separate CO2 from the H/CO2 mixture obtained from fossil fuels

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21
Q

Oxyfuel carbon capture

A

Burn in pure oxygen = CO2 and steam

Condense and isolate

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22
Q

Post combustion carbon capture (MOST)

A

Use solvents to remove CO2 from dilute, low pressure exhaust gases

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23
Q

CO2 storage - limiting technology

i.e. difficulties with the technology

A

Data density - difficult to compare sites

Site capacity

Site injectivity (?fracture if too fast)

Reservoir and seal reactivity (alters water chemistry)

Site integrity

Site monitoring

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24
Q

CO2 storage options

A

Depleted oil/gas reservoirs

Enhanced Oil Recovery

Deep unused saline aquifers*

Enhanced CBM recovery

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25
Q

Saline aquifers =

A

Geological formations with water too brackish for potable purposes

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26
Q

Goaf =

A

Void space due to coal mining/underground coal gasification - up to 2000 x more permeable than deep saline aquifers

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27
Q

Trapping mechanisms

A

Structural and stratigraphic

Residual CO2 in pore spaces

Solubility

Mineral

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28
Q

Residual CO2 trapping

A

Brine = wetting fluid

Adheres to pore sides due to surface tension

Brine moves upwards = CO2 displaced BUT passes through pore throat = some trapped

29
Q

Solubility trapping

A

CONVECTION ENHANCED DISSOLUTION

Increase [CO2] = increase brine density = convection

30
Q

Cosmic Ray Muon Tomography

A

Dense minerals (high atomic number) deflect charged, very penetrating particles created by cosmic radiation striking in the atmosphere

Sensors in subsurface to see how many have come through

See where CO2 is moving above of sensors are underneath

31
Q

Types of geothermal energy

A

Ground source heat (shallow)

Hydrothermal systems

Engineered geothermal systems

32
Q

Ground source heat pumps

A

Earth = source in winter, sink in summer

Absorbs/rejects heat from/to the ground

6m ~constant depth

Energy efficient heating/cooling device

33
Q

Hydrothermal systems

A

Deep convection cells

34
Q

Engineered geothermal systems =

A

Fracture stimulation of hot, dry rock e.g. granite

Currently rely on natural hydrothermal systems and high heat flow on plate boundaries

35
Q

Ways to extract heat in geothermal power generation

A

DRY STEAM

FLASH STEAM

BINARY CYCLE

36
Q

Dry steam

A

Hydrothermal fluids used directly

> 210 degrees
~20-100 MWe

37
Q

Binary cycle

A

Lower T fields

Separate hydrothermal from “binary” e.g. butane/pentane

Then vaporise binary fluid in a heat exchanger to drive a turbine

38
Q

What does coal formation need?

A

Abundant land plants - therefore <465Ma (before then was limited, need to have evolved and grown)

Anaerobic decomposition - near surface water table!

Rapid basin subsidence/sediment accumulation = economically thick deposits

Intermittent high clastic input (burial)

39
Q

Ideal conditions for coal formation

A

DELTAS
- esp elongate/birdsfoot; weak marine currents/waves

Valley bogs
Blanket bogs e.g. UK Quarternary Peat deposits

40
Q

What happens to coal’s properties with increasing rank?

A

Increase calorific value

Decrease volatile components

41
Q

Rank order of coal

A

Peat

Lignite (soft brown coal)

Sub-bituminous (hard brown coal)

Bituminous

Anthracite

Graphite

42
Q

How does the distribution of sands affect whether coal is deposited?

A

Differential compaction

  • mud compacts more than sandstone
  • sandstone “blocks” coal formation

SEAM SPLITS

SEAM THINNING/ABSENCE

WASHOUTS
- coal eroded away and then filled with sand

43
Q

Coalfields of Britain and Ireland

A

Between Caledonian and Variscan orogeny = basin = sediment accumulation
(“PALAEOGEOGRAPHY”)

Region of rifted continental crust between Highlands massif and marie Cornwall-Rhenish basin

Post-Carboniferous coal is minor

Peat = NW Britain
- Ireland 25% electricity

44
Q

History of coal exploitation in the UK

A

12TH-14TH C
- Bishops of Durham charged people for transporting coal over their land in the NE

17TH C

  • long wall mining = long and not deep
  • 40% recovery

DEMAND INCREASED

18TH C

  • deep mining
  • 1913 = peak production

1947
- NCB standardised operating procedures

1984

  • Miners Strike
  • offset with oil/gas
  • cost $7 billion

2015
- last deep pit closes, some opencast remain

45
Q

UK operations 2010

A

11 producing underground mines

33 producing surface mines

46
Q

UK Major Producers 2010

A 
UK Coal Mining Ltd
Scottish Coal Mining Company Ltd
ATH Resources Ltd
Celtic Energy
Hargreaves Services
Powerfuel
47
Q

UK operation 2016

A

0 producing underground mines
33 producing surface mines
Fewer applications and many refused

48
Q

What do reserves-to-production graphs indicate?

A

Longevity

49
Q

Types of reserve

A

TECHNICAL
- using available technology

PROVEN
- extant economic/operating conditions

PROBABLE
- most likely recoverable

POSSIBLE
- P10 reserve/equivalent

50
Q

What happens as the size of a reserve increases?

A

The likelihood to be able to distract diminishes

51
Q

Ways to extract coal

A

Mine

CBM + ECBM

UCG

52
Q

Gas in coal

A

Free gas in micropores and cleats

Methane dissolved in water

Adsorbed gas

  • coating around edge of matrix grains
  • semi fluid
  • increase pressure = gas
53
Q

CBM production profile

A

Dewatering stage
- permeability increases as pressure reduces

Stable production stage

Decline stage

Methane and water plotted on same graph

54
Q

CBM characteristics

A 
Low permeability
Cleat dominated
Peak 0.3mmscf/d
Many wells
Co-produces water
55
Q

Conventional gas characteristics

A 
Low to high permeability
Matrix dominated
Min. 20mmscf/d
Few wells
No water production
56
Q

Enhanced Coal Bed Methane

A

Carbon dioxide preferentially adsorbed and methane desorbed

N.B. Process self limiting b/c CO2 adsorption reduces permeability

57
Q

Underground Coal Gasification

A

Coal to gas while underground

2 wells interconnected

Oxygen injected = reaction
= syngas (H/CO/CH4/CO2)

58
Q

Examples of UCG

A

Hett Hill, Durham 1912 (trialled)

Yerostigaz, Russia 1961 (operating)

Pilot schemes in Australia and N America

Interest in China/India

59
Q

Risks associated with CCS

A

CO2 and CH4 leakage

SEISMICITY

GROUND MOVEMENT AND DISPLACEMENT OF BRINE

60
Q

CCS Risks - CO2 and CH4 storage

A

Due to well/cap rock failure
- chances unknown

CO2 leakage generally lowest for coal seams and highest for deep saline aquifers

= HEALTH HAZARD
= ECOSYSTEM IMPACT
= SOIL/GROUNDWATER QUALITY

61
Q

CCS Risks - Seismicity

A

Frequency can be reduced by controlling injection pressure

= INFRASTRUCTURE/BUILDING DAMAGE
= CAP ROCK DAMAGE AND SUBSEQUENT CO2 LEAKAGE

62
Q

CCS Risks - Ground movement and displacement of brine

A

= BUILDINGS AND INFRASTRUCTURE
= SEISMICITY
= WATER TABLE RISE
= INCREASE OF SALINITY IN DRINKING WATER RESOURCES

63
Q

Flash steam

A

Brine and steam separated
- at high pressures steam produces more energy

MOST POWER PLANTS USE

> 210 degrees
~20-100MWe

64
Q

Transmissivity =

A

Permeability x thickness

65
Q

Hydraulic properties of aquifers

A

TRANSMISSIVITY

POROSITY

PERMEABILITY

  • primary = interconnected pores
  • secondary = fracturing
66
Q

Porosity calculation

A

Vol voids/total vol

Geophysical logs/lab measurements

67
Q

Permeability calculation

A

Estimate from porosity

OR (more reliable)

Pumping test = direct borehole measurement

68
Q

Formation resource evaluation

A

Geological model of aquifer (reservoir)

T field maps

Hydraulic properties

Environment And Resources (4 decks)

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