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Environment And Resources > Resources > Flashcards

Resources Flashcards

1
Q

What is sulfur used for?

A

Medicine

Sulfuric acid

Match heads

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2
Q

What is magnesium used for?

A

Metal alloys

Medicine

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3
Q

What is phosphorous used for?

A

Super phosphate for agriculture

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4
Q

What is aluminium used for?

A

Agriculture

Food

Building

Electrical

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5
Q

What is barium used for?

A

Medicine

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6
Q

What is fluorine used for?

A

Toothpaste

Smelting ores

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7
Q

What is sodium chloride used for?

A

Food additive

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8
Q

What is barium/caesium used for?

A

Treatment of cancers

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9
Q

What is copper/lead/zinc used for?

A

Pipes

Electrical components

Paints

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10
Q

What are diamonds used for?

A

Drilling

Lasers

Polishing

Jewellery

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11
Q

What is gold used for?

A

Electrical components

Research

Medicine

Jewellery

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12
Q

Resource =

A

Material available to us from the Earth for our daily lives

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13
Q

Economic resource =

A

Known and recoverable today

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14
Q

Sub economic resource =

A

Known but can’t recover at a profit

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15
Q

Reserve (ore) =

A

Concentration of material or element deemed to have value

  • discoverable, mined economically and legally
  • fraction of resource known to exist
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16
Q

How does a resource become a reserve?

A

Relies on:

Recovery at a profit

Physical factors e.g. water, energy, infrastructure

Human factors e.g. politics, taxation, environmental

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17
Q

Grasberg, papa New Guinea

A

World largest gold reserve

2nd largest copper reserve

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18
Q

Enrichment factor =

A

Level of element concentration above crustal abundance that makes it an ore

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19
Q

Hydrothermalism =

A

Viable analogue in ore forming processes for metamorphism

Involves modification of igneous and sedimentary rocks by heat transfer and pressure fluctuation

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20
Q

Syngenetic =

A

Ore deposits that form at the same time as the host rock

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21
Q

Source

A

Large scale, long term geochemical reservoirs

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22
Q

Agent =

A

Means by which metal ores are removed from source and transported to the site of deposition

CHEMICALLY - interact in solution

PHYSICALLY - transport e.g. grains

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23
Q

Deposition, requires…

A

1) suitable site and conditions

2) change in transportation to cause ore forming mineral formation
- physical
- chemical (P/T/pH/Eh)

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24
Q

Energy =

A

Required to mobilise agent
Also assists dissolution prior to transport and deposition

Heat derived from radioactive decay and then transferred by conduction/convection

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25
Q

Direct crystallisation - Example

A

Uraninite mine in Namibia
2007: 6th largest producer of nuclear energy

125 times U found in normal rocks e.g. black shale enriched in U because organic matter sequestered it

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26
Q

Carbonatite =

A

Igneous rock with high levels of calcite, dolomite and siderite

Low levels of silica

Unusual to be carbonate rich
- low temperature volcanism 550-600

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27
Q

How do carbonate melts form?

A

Liquid immiscibility

  • silicate minerals crystallise
  • increase relative carbonate abundance
  • physically separates
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28
Q

Importance of carbonatites

A

They crystallise with a high % of rare metals

  • phosphorous (apatite)
  • iron, titanium (magnetite)
  • niobium (pyroclore)
  • zirconium (baddeleyite)

+ REE

  • tantalum
  • uranium
  • thorium
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29
Q

Rare Earth Element deposits - examples

A 
Palabora South Africa
- Fe
- Cu
- P
- Zr
- U
225 megatonnes of copper at 0.7% = worth $9.4 billion

Mountain pass California
- 8% bastinite with REE in
The greatest REE deposit in the world

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30
Q

Demand for REE

A

Hybrid car batteries ~20kg

Wind turbines
- 2 tonnes of high strength magnets ~30%

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31
Q

Pegmatites =

A

Very coarse grained rocks

Big source of REE

Crystals several cm in length

  • granitic
  • quartz, feldspar, mica
  • topaz/tourmaline
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32
Q

Pegmatite Example

A

South Dakota Precambrian black hills pegmatite with spodumene (LITHIUM aluminium silicate) crystals 15m

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33
Q

Beryllium

A

Be

Beryl

Low density, high melting T, resistant

Brake disks in jet aircraft, x ray tubes

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34
Q

Caesium

A

Cs

Pollucite

Atomic clocks, light sensitive detectors

Nuclei have different energy states

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35
Q

Cerium

A

Ce

Monazite

Phosphorescence, high friction

High definition TV tubes, lighter flints

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36
Q

Lithium

A

Li

Spodumene

Low density, high thermal conductivity, low MT

Low density alloys, batteries, coolant in nuclear reactions

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37
Q

Tantalum

A

Ta

Tantalite

High density, machineable, high resistivity, corrosion resistant

Military warheads, electronic capacities, surgical implants

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38
Q

Tin

A

Sn

Cassiterite

Low MT, corrosion resistant

Tinplate, float glass, alloys

39
Q

Tungsten

A

W

Wolframite

High density, high MT, low thermal expansion

Abrasive and cutting tools, light bulb filaments, high speed steel

40
Q

Uranium

A

U

Fissile isotopes

Nuclear reactor fuel

41
Q

Pegmatite formation

A

In situ fractional crystallisation of a pegmatite magma

As it progressively crystallises, the wt% of water and incompatible elements increases within the residual melt

  • crystallises slower
  • increase grain size
42
Q

Magmatic segregation =

A

Mineral separation in a magma due to fractional crystallisation to form cumulate layers

2nd pulse of magma allows e.g. chromite to form over a longer period of time

43
Q

Magmatic segregation; chromite - why is it necessary?

A

Max Cr content in ultra mafic lavas = 0.2 wt%

Need >= 30% to mine

So cumulate layers are useful!!!

E.g. Dwars river on the Bushveld Complex

44
Q

Bushveld and the Great Dyke

A

World’s most valuable mineral deposit

Cr
Pt
Pd
Ru
Au
It
Rh
Cu
Ni
V
45
Q

Liqueation of sulphur melt

A

Liquid immiscibility process

46
Q

What kind of deposits does liqueation of a sulphur melt form?

A

Nickel, copper and iron basaltic ore deposits

= MASSIVE DISSEMINATED SULPHIDE ORES

47
Q

Liqueation of sulphur melt, Example

A

Voisey’s Bay, Canada

One of the worlds largest nickel deposits
Olivine gabbro when sulphide coats the minerals

48
Q

Kimberlite formation

A

A mixture of melt from the mantle and fragmented mantle material is picked up on kimberlites way to the surface

Made up of

  • xenoliths (rock)
  • xenocrysts (crystals like diamond)

Rapid emplacement up pipeline bodies and deposited in areas of very old, stable lithosphere (intraplate)

49
Q

Hydrothermalism =

A

Any chemical or physical process by which hot, aqueous fluids are a component of ore formation

50
Q

Aqueous fluids involved in hydrothermalism

A

Meteoric
- from precipitation

Magmatic
- released in eruption

Connate
- trapped during sedimentation

Metamorphic
- dehydration

Mantle

51
Q

Pathways =

A

Permeable

Porous

Fractures

Cavities

52
Q

Present day hydrothermalism =

A

Metal rich hydrothermal fluids actively venting on the earth’s surface

Also black smokers

53
Q

Characteristics of present day hydrothermalism

A

Fluids above magmatic heat sources 200-350

Can be saline

Siliceous sinter and travertine deposits

Diverse element enrichment

54
Q

Present day hydrothermalism examples

A

Champagne pool NZ

Dalton sea

California

Red Sea brine pools

55
Q

Black smokers

A

Stratiform layers of metaliferous sediments

  • hot basaltic magma percolates H2O
  • leaches metals
  • comes to surface
  • reacts with cold seawater
  • forms sediment
56
Q

Ocean mining

A

Papa new guinae

57
Q

Types of ancient hydrothermalism

A

Porphyry type

  • Cu
  • Mo
  • Au
Massive sulphide (SEDEX)
- Cu
- Pb
- Zn
(Ba)

Mississippi valley type

  • Pb (galena)
  • Zn (sphalerite)
  • BITUMEN
58
Q

Porphyry type formation

A

250-600
Repeats over 50-250 million years

WET MAGMA COOLS

  • increased water content
  • bubbles separate out and rises
  • scavenges soluble metals from magma

MAGMA RISES

  • low pressure
  • water boils = steam = increases volume

HYDROFRACTURE
STOCKWORK VEIN SYSTEM

RAPID FLUID ESCAPE

  • rapid crystallisation
  • porphyritic texture and deposition of ore minerals in fractures
59
Q

Porphyry ore characteristics

A

Low grade high tonnage
- typically 0.3-1% Cu and 50-1000Mt of ore

Small diameter intrusions in host rocks

Wall rock alteration via ore bearing fluids reacting

STOCKWORK with the ore disseminated

Pyrite, chalcopyrite, bornite

60
Q

Porphyry type

Example

A

Bingham canyon, Utah

61
Q

SEDEX

Submarine hydrothermalism =

A

Sedimentary Exhalative Massive Sulphide Deposits

62
Q

Characteristics of SEDEX

A

Mostly mudstones intercollated with very fine sulphide deposits

Cu Pb Zn

Sometimes barite if SULPHATE

63
Q

SEDEX Example

A

Red dog, Alaska

World’s largest zinc deposit

64
Q

Mississippi valley type

A

Basically fluids expelled during sediment compaction

Migrate into limestone

Metals precipitated into cavities and fractures when fluids react with limestone

100-150 degrees

65
Q

Types of sedimentary processes and ore formation

A

Direct precipitation from water - BIFs

Kupferschiefer

Placer deposits

Weathering/residual deposits - laterites and secondary enrichment

66
Q

BIFs =

A

Primary Fe3 ion sources

  • hematite
  • magnetite
  • siderite
67
Q

Fe(II) vs Fe (III)

A

Fe2, ferrous iron
Soluble in reducing conditions

Fe3, ferric iron
Insoluble and therefore precipitates in oxidising conditions

68
Q

How do BIFs form?

A

Fe2 rich water reacts with neutral water = oxidation

= Fe3 = precipitation

Iron rich chert with cryptocrystalline silica

69
Q

When did BIFs form?

A

In Proterozoic/archaean times

And 720-660Ma

70
Q

Why did BIFs form when they did in Proterozoic/archaean times?

A

Low levels of oxygen in the atmosphere

Iron in the ocean due to hydrothermal input and continental weathering

Photosynthesis suddenly increased oxygen and Fe was oxidised

  • quickly used oxygen
  • fe built up
  • O2 built up etc etc

Once oxygen was readily available it didn’t build up so more so didn’t form as “the ferrous ions were exhausted”

71
Q

Why did BIFs form 720-660Ma?

A

Neoproterozoic times

“Snow ball Earth”

  • lacked water
  • lacked atmospheric interaction

Ice sheet broke up = flood of oxygen into the ocean

Short lived and not economic

72
Q

Kupferschiefer =

A

Stratiform sediment of copper shale

Enriched in Cu and Zn

Economic in a few areas e.g. Poland (the leading copper producer in Europe)

73
Q

Kupferschiefer deposition

A

Syn deposition sulphide precipitation

Sulphide precipitation due to bacterial reduction of sulphate in seawater

Pyrite

74
Q

Kupferschiefer replacement

A

SYN DIAGENESIS

Connate water leaches copper and other metals

Replaces primary sulphides with copper bearing sulphides

75
Q

Placer deposit =

A

Concentrate of heavy minerals

76
Q

How do placer deposits form?

A

Exposed ore body
Weathered = eroded
Stream environment = deposited where there is a drop in energy e.g. inside a meander

77
Q

Characteristics of placer deposits

A

Dense
Hard
Poor cleavage

= not transported far and withstands erosion

78
Q

Placer deposit examples

A

WITWATERSRAND FOSSIL GOLD PLACER DEPOSIT, SOUTH AFRICA

  • 2 billion years old
  • 48,000 metric tonnes of gold mines
  • 40% of the world’s total production

CANADA
- ice sheets migrated diamonds and other minerals from kimberlite

ORANGE RIVER, AFRICA

  • old river system which has migrated
  • 97% gem quality
  • 60-100 carats
79
Q

Laterites =

A

In situ residual deposit

80
Q

How do laterites form?

A

Water percolates into soil/bedrock etc
Mobilises and transports metals

Form enriched zone with kaolinite and insoluble hydrated oxides

81
Q

Why are laterites economic at low grades?

A

Poorly consolidated at surface = easy to mine

High levels of Al = third most abundant element but usually locked in silicate minerals

Cheap labour due to locations

82
Q

Secondary enrichment =

A

Analogous to laterite formation

83
Q

How do secondary enrichment deposits form?

A

Oxidising water reacts with metals and soil

  • oxygen used
  • more reducing conditions with depth

Different reactions take place

84
Q

Secondary enrichment - layers

A

GOSSAN LAYER

  • iron cap
  • pyrite&raquo_space;> iron oxides

LEACHED ZONE
- dissolved O2/CO2 in groundwater leaches out minerals = sulfuric acid

OXIDISED ZONE

  • primary&raquo_space;> secondary minerals = oxides + carbonates
  • malachite/azurite/native Cu

WATER TABLE

ENRICHED ZONE - R E D U C I N G

  • primary sulphides don’t break down
  • “supergene sulphide enrichment” zone
  • new sulphide minerals
  • chalcocite/bornite

PRIMARY ZONE
- unaltered primary minerals

85
Q

Magmatic

A

Direct crystallisation

Carbonatite

Pegmatites

Cumulate layers

Liquidation of sulphur melt

Kimberlite

86
Q

Hydrothermal

A

Present day

Porphyry type

Submarine - SEDEX

Mississippi-Valley type

87
Q

Sedimentary

A

Direct precipitation

Kupferschiefers

Placer deposits

Laterites

Secondary enrichment

88
Q

Liqueation MINERALS

A

Nickel
Copper
Iron
- sulphides

Pyrrhotite and Chalcopyrite

89
Q

Magmatic segregation MINERALS

A

Iron
Chromium

Chromite

90
Q

Pegmatites MINERALS

A 
Quartz
Feldspar
Mica
Topaz
Tourmaline
Be, Ce, Cs
REE; Li, Nb, Rb, Ta, Th, Sn, W, V, Zr
91
Q

Carbonatite MINERALS

A

Calcite
Dolomite
Siderite

REE
Potassium (low silica)
Fe, T&raquo_space; magnetite
Zirconium

92
Q

Laterite MINERALS

A

Kaolinite

Hydrated oxides

93
Q

Placer MINERALS

A

Ilmenite

Cassiterite

Columbite

Zircon

Gold

Diamond

94
Q

Kupferschiefer MINERALS

A

Cu
Zn
Chalcopyrite/Bornite

Pb
Galena

Zn
Sphalerite

Pt

Environment And Resources (4 decks)

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