W4 Retrieval of memory ✅

Question 1

What are the key components of the retrieval process?

Answer 1

1. Retrieval: A progression from one or
   more retrieval cues to a target
   memory trace through
   associative connection => make the target available
2. Target memory trace: the particular memory we are looking for
3. Retrieval cues: bits of information about the target memory that guide the search
4. Associations: bonds that link together items in memory -> varied in strength

Question 2

What is meant by pattern completion?

Answer 2

The process by which spreading activation from a set of cues leads to reinstatement of a memory

=> A hippocampal mechanism (activity in hippocampus region)
=> Memory retrieval in the context of spreading activation.

1. Activation Level:
   - How accessible or easily retrievable a particular piece of information is.
   - Increase when something related to a memory starts
   - Persists for some time
2. Spreading Activation:
   - Transfer of thoughts (“energy”) from one memory to related items via association (e.g. dinner -> meal -> wife -> cook)
   - Proportional to the strength of connections

Question 3

What are the factors determining retrieval success? [1,2,3,4]

Answer 3

1. Attention to cues: reduced attention to cue impairs its ability to guide retrieval
   => IF second task demands lots of attention & is related to the main task
2. Relevance of cues: retrieval cues are most effective when strongly related to target (e.g. present at encoding)
   => Encoding specificity principles
3. Cue-target associative strength: Determined by the length of time and attention spent on reinforcing the relationship => separate encodings of cue and target is unhelpful
4. Number of cues:
   - Access to additional, relevant cues facilitates retrieval
   => Elaborative encoding maximises the no. of retrieval routes

Question 4

What are the types of retrieval tasks - recognition?

Answer 4

1. Direct/explicit memory test:

• Ask people to recall particular experiences
• Requires cue
• Reveal impaired performance in amnesics
• Rely on hippocampus (usually)
• Memory tests: free recall, cued recall, yes/no recognition, forced-choice recognition

2. Indirect/implicit memory test:

• Measure the unconscious influence of experience without asking the subject to recall
• Priming: Recent experience with the stimulus improves performance
• Reveal normal performance in
  amnesics
• Memory tests: stem completion, fragment completion, conceptual fluency (test existing memory)

Question 5

What are the 4 types of contextual cues for memory retrieval?

Answer 5

1. Spatio-Temporal/ Environmental: Location and time cues during an event (e.g. restaurants, lecture hall)
2. Mood: Emotional state that one was in during the event (e.g. happy, sad)
3. Physiological: Physical (pharmacological) state
   one was in during an event
   (e.g. tired, drunk)
4. Cognitive: Collection of concepts one has thought about the event

Question 6

What are the factors determining retrieval success? [5,6,7]

Answer 6

5. Strengths of target memory: weakly encoded targets are more difficult to retrieve
   => Lower activation level for target
   => Explain word frequency efffect on word recall
6. Retrieval strategy:
   - Organisation of materials at encoding
   - Adopting efficient strategies of memory search
7. Retrieval mode: associating semantic memory with episodic cues from environment during encoding (‘Frame of Mind’)
   => Memory is encoded in different brain regions so easier to retrieve

Question 7

What are the types of memory in the context of retrieval?

Answer 7

1. Context-dependent:
   - Encoding specificity: we encode contextual information along with its context
   - Example: divers taught word pair in either underwater or on land => recall better when same environment with encoding process
2. State-dependent: Like context-dependent but relating to internal state/environment
   (e.g. drunk, high, at rest)
   => State dependency disappears under recognition tests
3. Mood-memory (2 types):
   - Mood-dependent : recall is dependent on the match in mood states between
   encoding and retrieval.
   => Person/person
   - Mood-congruent memory: easier to recall events that have an emotional tone that matches the current mood of the person
   => e.g. Depressed individuals are likely to recall mostly unpleasant
   memories (Person/item)
4. Cognitive context-dependent:
   - Retrieval is better if the same cognitive features/tasks are involved between encoding and retrieval
   - Ideas, thoughts and concepts that occupied our attention
   => e.g. memories are easier to access when takes place in the same language mode

Question 8

Why does environmental factors affect how we retrieve memory?

Answer 8

Because memory is reconstructive

• Retrieved memories are no entirely intact -> not perfect
• Needs cues to figure out some aspects of the recalled experience
• Reconstructive memory: inferential aspect of memory (knowledge, schemas)

Question 9

What is meant by recognition memory and two theories to study Participants’ decision making process?

Answer 9

A form of memory test to measure the participants’ level of guessing and decision-making bias for accepting items as old.

• Decide whether one encountered a stimulus before
• Presents the stimulus (i.e. target), unlike in recall.
• Discrimination between OLD and NEW stimuli.

2 models:
1. Signal Detection Theory (SDT)
2. Dual-process theory

Question 10

What is signal detection theory (SDT)?

Answer 10

WHAT? A theory to understand and explore recognition memory decisions.

ORIGIN: developed from auditory perception task, where Ps detect a tone (signal) presented against background noise -> Hard or easy to detect?

How: Contain a matrix to count the number of false alarms (New -> Old), and misses (Old -> New) made by Ps.

EXPLANATIONS:
- Memory traces have strength values (level of familiarity)
- The traces vary in their familiarity based on: attention at
encoding and repetition
- Both new and old items in memory recognition task have their own familiarity values.
- New items are less familiar than old, BUT can feel familiar if they appear often or are similar to old items -> two distributions overlap.
- Response criterion: Items that surpass this are judged old.
Can be more liberal or strict.

PROBLEMS:
- Cannot account for all recognition memory phenomena
- Word frequency effect: Low frequency words are better
recognised, but high frequency words are better recalled.
- SDT incorrectly predicts low-frequency words should be
less familiar

Question 11

What is Dual Process theory (DPT)?

Answer 11

THEORY: Recognition memory is based on two processes. We access these and see if we have encountered something before.

1. Familiarity: A sense of memory without being able to remember contextual information
   -> Described by signal detection
   -> Faster and more automatic
2. Recollection: Retrieving contextual details about a stimulus - like cued recall
   -> Slower and more attention demanding

PROBLEMS:
- Difficult to clearly isolate and measure these two processes.
- The distinction between familiarity and recollection isn’t always straightforward.