W2 Episodic vs Semantic ✅

Question 1

What is the differences between episodic and semantic memory?

Answer 1

Episodic (time machine)

• Memories for specific events associated with time
• Can go backward to relieve earlier episodes
• Go forward to anticipate & plan future events

Semantic - knowledge

• Memory for facts isn’t associated with time
• Two types of encoding:
  1. Short delay: info recalled in episodes
  2. Long delay: information integrated to semantic memory

Question 2

What are the evidence that episodic and semantic memories are different?

Answer 2

1. Functionally different: types of information and experiences
2. Neuropsychological evidence: studied 147 cases of amnesia

• Substantial/dramatic loss of episodic memory
• Variable/smaller effect to semantic memory

3. Independent neural systems:

• Damage to hippocampus & medial temporal lobe (MTL) region: affects episodic memory BUT affect acquisition of new semantic memories
• Damage to anterior frontal & anterior temporal lobes (AFL & ATL) loss of concept knowledge (semantics) but intact episodic memory

=> Both systems dynamically interact and affect each other since many long-term memories are a mix between episodic and semantic

Question 3

What is meant by Schemas?

Answer 3

1. Origin: Examined recall of complex materials using recall errors to study organisation of thoughts and memory (Bartlett >< Ebbinghaus)
2. Definition of schemas:

• Structured representation of knowledge about a concept (e.g. people, action)
• Used to understand, encode and retrieve new materials
• Influenced by social and cultural factors

3. Evidence: restaurant schemas & folk tales
   * Most Ps reported common actions when going to a restaurant -> restaurant schemas
   * People committed many errors and distortions when asked to recall -> make stories for coherent for them and omit details

Question 4

What is the role of schema to memory recall?

Answer 4

WHAT?
* Previous schematic knowledge is beneficial for later recall
* Affect memory retrieval after a long interval

WHY? Help comprehension and organisation of elements in a novel stimulus

Evidence: ‘washing clothes’ instruction passage

Question 5

What is the role of meaning in memory recall & the dual-coding hypothesis

Answer 5

WHAT: Ascribing meaning to stimuli affects encoding & storage -> memory performance is guided by meaning

WHY? Related words within the list tend to be recalled as a cluster/together

Dual-coding hypothesis: Visual Imagery

• More imageable words = more memorable
• Why? can be encoded in 2 ways (visual appearance & verbal meaning)
  -> Improve the chance of successful recall

Question 6

What is meant by Levels of Processing theory?

Answer 6

• Memory of a stimulus is encoded based on the levels/depth of the processing for that stimulus
• Input can be processed in 3 levels: visual -> phonological -> semantic (meaning)
• Evidence: deep processing (meaning) leads to better recognition, similar findings across different memory test
• Issues:
  -> difficult to define and measure
  -> levels are not processed in a serial order but simultaneously
  -> Deeper >< memorable

Question 7

What is meant by Transfer-appropriate processing (TAP)?

Answer 7

• Principle: memory retrieval is best when cues in testing stage is similar to those in encoding stage.
• Evidence: test memory for objects either in word or picture form (study stage uses pictures)
  -> memory is better for pictures

=> LoP effect can be explained by TAP -> deep encoding similar to the way memory is tested (cues)

Question 8

Why is deeper encoding better?

Answer 8

• Deeper processing of information is advantageous
• Richer and more elaborate encoding -> better memory (enhance delayed long-term learning)
• Distinguish 2 types of rehearsal
  1. Maintenance: repeated something as it is
  2. Elaborative: linking it to other materials

Question 9

What is meant by hierarchical organisation?

Answer 9

• WHAT? Recall is better when words are organised than in scrambled order (during presentation)
• WHY? memory is benefited by subjective organisation (associated meaning)
• HOW? Items are often grouped together if they:
  1. Linked to a common associate
  2. Come from the same semantic category
  3. Form a logical hierarchical structure
• Conclusion: attention to and organisation of materials are more important (intention has minimal effect)
  -> evidence: arranging word card group performs the worst while sorting cards by meaning groups (test or no test) perform best

Question 10

Summary of factors that aid encoding?

Answer 10

1. Create connections: imagery and meaning (dual-coding)
2. Organisation: semantic grouping improves recall
3. LoP/TAP: deeper processing -> better retention
4. Active creation: generation/ testing effect (retrieval leads to better long-term recall)