w2: Things & Kinds

Question 1

Scientific Discourse

Answer 1

Scientific discourse refers to how psychological concepts, theories, and methods are discussed, constructed, and debated in the scientific community.

It is not limited to phenomena (ontological concerns) or knowledge production (epistemological issues) but also addresses how these are conceptualised and articulated (meta-ontology and conceptualisation).

Example: The debate on the nature of consciousness in psychology, whether it is a biological process or an emergent phenomenon.

Question 2

Conceptual Analysis

Answer 2

Conceptual analysis in psychology involves critically examining and deconstructing concepts to understand their meaning, usage, and implications within a scientific framework.

Example: Analysing “intelligence” to determine whether it reflects a fixed trait or an emergent set of cognitive abilities shaped by environment.

Question 3

Knowledge Production

Answer 3

This refers to the processes by which new psychological insights and theories are developed, validated, and shared, often shaped by epistemological and methodological approaches.

Example: Using experimental methods to study the effects of therapy on anxiety and publishing the results in peer-reviewed journals.

Question 4

Overton’s Nested Levels of Scientific Discourses

metatheories, theories, and empirical observations:

Answer 4

*** Metatheories **are the broadest and most foundational, providing the epistemological and ontological framework for scientific inquiry. For example, paradigms like Cartesian mechanistic views or process-relational worldviews fall under metatheories.

• Middle-Range Theories refine the metatheoretical concepts into more specific frameworks tailored to particular scientific phenomena, like relational developmental systems theory.
• Empirical Observations are grounded in hypotheses derived from theories and are validated through experimentation or data collection.

Question 5

Key characteristics of Overton’s approach:

Relational Complementarity, paradigmatic differences, conceptual analysi

Answer 5

1. Relational Complementarity: Overton stresses that empirical data and theoretical concepts are interdependent. Neither should be seen as dominant but as complementary.
2. Paradigmatic Differences: Two paradigms—Cartesian mechanistic and process-relational—illustrate contrasting worldviews in science.
3. Inclusion of Conceptual Analysis: Conceptual clarity is integral, ensuring theories are built on robust ontological and epistemological foundations.

Question 6

Moon & Blackman Framework

ontology, epistemology, philosophical perspectives

Answer 6

**Moon & Blackman **present a guide for understanding social science research, with a focus on philosophy’s role in shaping scientific inquiry. Their framework identifies:

• Ontology (what exists): They contrast realism and relativism, outlining how assumptions about reality influence research design.
• Epistemology (how we know): Objectivism, constructionism, and subjectivism are presented as positions that frame knowledge acquisition.
• Philosophical Perspectives: These include positivism, interpretivism, and critical theory, which guide the methodological approach of research

Question 7

Comparison Overton, Moon&Blackman

Answer 7

Integration Focus:

Overton: Integrates conceptual and empirical components within nested discourses, creating a continuum from metatheories to observations.
Moon & Blackman: Emphasise interdisciplinary collaboration by clarifying differences between natural and social sciences using ontology, epistemology, and philosophy.

Paradigms and Perspectives:

Overton: Explores the structure and interaction of paradigms, aligning with philosophical perspectives like positivism and critical realism.
Moon & Blackman: Offer broader tools for understanding philosophical assumptions shaping research.

Relativism vs. Realism:

Overton: Incorporates process-relational paradigms, aligning with constructivist epistemologies.
Moon & Blackman: Explicitly contrast realist and relativist ontologies, linking them to conservation research applications.

Empirical Observations:

Overton: Views empirical data as shaped by theory and metatheory, rejecting purely inductive methods.
Moon & Blackman: Focus on interpreting empirical data in interdisciplinary contexts.

Question 8

Psychological Essentialism

Answer 8

Psychological essentialism is the belief that certain traits or categories have an underlying “essence” that defines their identity and behavior.

Example: Believing that aggression is an inherent trait caused by biological factors like testosterone.

Essence is thought to be visible by someone’s category membership (ie. Kinds): things that look similar share similar (abstract) qualities.

Question 9

Latent Traits: Essences & Indicators

Answer 9

Latent traits are unobservable characteristics inferred from measurable behaviors or outcomes.

Essence: The inherent quality (e.g., intelligence).
Indicators: Observable behaviors that reflect the essence (e.g., problem-solving skills).
Example: Measuring intelligence through IQ tests.

Question 10

Personality and Essentialism (psych)

Answer 10

traits as essence: personality traits viewed as stable, inherent tendencies that explain regularities in behaviour+ cognition.

observable indicators: traits inferre from consistent observable behaviours + emotional patterns.
- seen as manifestations of essence

causality: essentialism assumes circular causality
 Personality traits cause behaviours.
 Observed behaviours are then used as evidence for the presence of those traits.
 Example: A person is considered “kind” because they help others, and their helping behaviour is explained by their “kindness.”

Question 11

types of essence

Non-specific & Specific Essences

Answer 11

Non-specific: Broad constructs like motivation or unconscious drives.

Specific: Tangible biological factors like genes or hormones.

**Example: **Aggression might stem from a non-specific essence (motivation) or specific essence (testosterone).

Question 12

Essence and Kinds

Answer 12

• The way entities are grouped into distinct categories or kinds based on the assumption that they share a common underlying essence.
• Reflects the belief that entities with the same kind possess similar traits.

essences and kinds relate to the categorisation and explanation of psychological traits, behaviours, and identities. These concepts explore whether psychological “kinds” (e.g., intelligence, personality types) are rooted in shared, immutable essences and how these categories influence understanding and research.

Question 13

Kinds definition

Answer 13

Definition: Categories or groups that are defined based on shared essences.
Psychological kinds include constructs like personality traits (e.g., extraversion), mental health disorders (e.g., depression), or cognitive abilities.

Question 14

core features of kinds and essence

Answer 14

Shared Ontology:

Members of a kind (e.g., individuals diagnosed with depression) are thought to share an underlying reality or essence (e.g., a specific neurochemical imbalance).

Immutability:
**
Essentialism often implies that the essence of a kind is stable and unchanging, suggesting that traits or disorders are biologically or fundamentally determined.

Exclusiveness:

Members of one kind are distinct from members of other kinds. For example, someone with high extraversion is categorically different from someone with high introversion.

Inductive Potential:

If a kind is based on shared essences, researchers assume that studying one member of the kind can generalise to others, leading to broader insights.

Question 15

Essentialism and Determinism:

Answer 15

Essentialism in psychology often aligns with deterministic views, suggesting that traits or behaviours are fixed by biology or social forces.

Determinism: builds on essentialism by focusing on the causative nature of essences. It posits that:
1. traits and behaviours are predetermined
2. traits are fixed- the origin of a trait (biological or social) locks the individual into specific behaviour

Question 16

Bio- and Social Determinism

Answer 16

Biological Determinism: Attributes psychological traits to genetic or neurological essences (e.g., intelligence as determined by brain size or genetic inheritance).
- trait caused by biological factors

Social Determinism: Attributes traits to fixed social constructs or identities (e.g., gender roles being unchangeable due to cultural norms).
- trait shaped by socal influences and environment

Question 17

critique essentialism and determinism

Answer 17

both essentialism and determinism have been criticised for their reductionist view, which ignores the dynamic interplay of multiple influences and the role of context in shaping behaviour.

Question 18

Substance Ontology

Answer 18

Reductionism: observable indicators are due to causal essence (trait).
Essence is an object (ie. Reification through the use of nouns, Billing)

• From a substance approach then, to understand something means to grasp its underlying, permanent, independent, and universal essence.

Views entities as fixed, with inherent, unchanging essences.

ie. personality is fixed

Question 19

Process Ontology (Nicholas Rescher)

Answer 19

Sees entities as dynamic, evolving systems influenced by context and time.

Question 20

part of substance ontology

Reductionism & Objectification (Reification)

Answer 20

Reductionism:

Simplifies complex psychological processes into their basic components, often ignoring the broader context or interactions.
In psychology, this might mean reducing mental states or behaviours solely to biological or neurological processes.

Objectification (Reification):

Treats abstract concepts, such as intelligence or emotions, as if they were concrete, independent entities, ignoring their relational or contextual nature.
This process can misrepresent dynamic phenomena as fixed or static “things.”

Question 21

characteristics

Features of process ontology

Answer 21

1. processes are sequential (iterative): sequence of events, causality or conditionality b/w events
   - occur in sequence, each event affects the next. (t, t+1, t+2..)
2. processes have subjects: individuals who actively participate in and shape these dynamic phenomena.
   - not a passive entity but an active participant in their own development or psychological processes.
3. Embeddedness in dynamic context: Processes are embedded in dynamic contexts, including social, environmental, and temporal factors.
   - Psychological phenomena are inseparable from their context;
4. Processes are action-based: Focuses on actions and relationships rather than static traits.
   Example: Instead of viewing “intelligence” as a fixed trait, process ontology examines how cognitive abilities emerge through learning and adaptation.
5. Processes have temporal properties: Processes unfold over time, with different stages or phases. Psychological processes, such as behavioural change or mental health recovery, cannot be fully understood without considering their temporal dimension
6. Time-scale (micro-meso-macro): Processes operate across multiple interconnected time scales, from momentary interactions to lifelong trajectories.

Micro-Scale: Short-term processes- decision-making or momentary emotional reactions.
Meso-Scale: Mid-level processes- navigating a relationship over month or years
Macro-Scale: Long-term processes, such as personality development or the impact of cultural shifts on identity.

Question 22

Rescher’s Principles: Change & Stability (process ontology)

Answer 22

1. change: change is necessary for a process. Change is the fundamental driver of processes. A process cannot exist without ongoing dynamic interactions and transitions.

2.stability: Stability (at one time scale) emerges from processes of change and dynamics at a smaller time scale.
- Stable traits or behaviours (e.g., personality or emotional balance) emerge from continuous micro-level processes operating at smaller time scales.

^^things appear to be stable because it is changing at a slow time scale-

Question 23

process ontology

Systems: Internal & external components

Answer 23

concept of systems highlights the interconnected nature of psychological phenomena.

Internal Components
Definition: Processes or structures within the individual that contribute to psychological phenomena.
- These include neural mechanisms, cognitive schemas, and emotional regulation processes.

External Components
Definition: Environmental or social factors that interact with internal components and influence psychological systems.
- These include cultural norms, social interactions, physical environments, and educational contexts.

ie. memory
internal = neural activity in hippocampus and prefrontal cortex
external = educational context, social environmetn - encouragement during learning

Question 24

process ontology: systems internal and external

Causation: Component vs. Interaction Dominant

Answer 24

Component-Dominant Causation
Definition: Attributes causation to a specific, isolated component or factor within a system.
- aligns with reductionist view
- focus on singular cause such as genes

ie. Example:

Depression might be explained by a specific genetic mutation or a neurochemical imbalance (e.g., serotonin deficiency).

**Interaction-dominant causation: **
Definition: Emphasises that causation arises from the interactions between components within a system, rather than any single component.
- multiple factors (internal and external) interact to produce outcomes.

• aligns with process ontology

Example:
Depression might result from gene-environment interactions, such as a genetic predisposition activated by chronic stress.
A person’s biology, life experiences, social support, and cultural context interact dynamically to shape the manifestation of depression.

Question 25

process ontology

Process Causality

Answer 25

psychological phenomena as emerging from dynamic, ongoing interactions and changes over time, rather than being the result of static or isolated causes.

key features:
- Dynamic Interactions: psychological phenomena as a resut of interaction b/w internal and external factors.
- Temporal Dimension: Change happens over time, with past interactions influencing present states and shaping future outcomes
- Emergent Outcomes: Phenomena are emergent, meaning they arise from the interplay of components in a system and cannot be reduced to any single cause.

Question 26

Being vs. Becoming

Answer 26

Being: Focuses on static states or traits.
Becoming: Emphasises development and change.
Example: Viewing intelligence as a fixed trait (being) versus an evolving ability (becoming).

Question 27

Being vs. Becoming

Answer 27

Being: Focuses on static states or traits, assuming that certain characteristics (e.g., intelligence, personality) are fixed and unchanging.

Becoming: Emphasises dynamic processes, highlighting how traits and behaviours develop, evolve, and change over time in response to internal and external influences.

Question 28

Epistemic Humility

Answer 28

Acknowledges the limits of our understanding and avoids absolute claims about psychological phenomena.

Example: Accepting that intelligence tests measure a construct but may not capture all aspects of human intelligence.

Question 29

types of kinds (Kendler)

Answer 29

concept of “kinds” refers to how we categorise psychological phenomena, such as mental disorders, traits, or behaviours. Kendler’s models outline different ways to conceptualise these kinds, each with its own philosophical and practical implications.

• essential kinds
• social constructions
• practical kinds
• mechanic property cluster

Question 30

Kendler: essential kinds

Answer 30

defined by a single essence shared by all members
- intrinsic, immutable properties shared by all members of the category.

+ve = simple and explainatory for static categories
-ve = oversimplifies complex, dynamic phenomena

ie. depression seen as rooted in specific biological essence (- seretonin)

Question 31

Kendler: Socially constructed kinds

Answer 31

shaped by societal, cultural, or historical norms.

These categories are not fixed but emerge from shared societal understandings.

+ve = highlights variability and contextual influences
-ve= can ignore universal or biological factors

Question 32

Kendler: Practical Kinds

Answer 32

focus on utility rather than intrinsic truths

defined by their usefulness for addressing real-world problems, regardless of whether they represent objective or socially constructed realities.

+ve = functional for diagnosis and intervention
-ve = limited theoretical depth and fails to address causation

Question 33

process ontology

Kendler: MPC Kinds
(Mechanic property cluster)

Answer 33

MPC kinds conceptualise psychological phenomena as clusters of properties that are connected through causal relationships but do not depend on a fixed essence.

+ve = comprehensive and aligns with modern scientific understanding

-ve = complex to study and operationalise

Question 34

Essences and Defining Features

Answer 34

Essences:

An essence is an intrinsic property that defines a kind.
Assumes all members of a kind share an unchanging, underlying cause or mechanism.
In psychology: Disorders like schizophrenia are often assumed to have a core biological basis, such as a genetic mutation.
Defining Features:

Observable traits or symptoms resulting from the essence.
Example: In essentialist models, depression’s defining features (e.g., sadness, insomnia) are considered consequences of a single underlying cause like serotonin imbalance.

Question 35

Kendler’s Conclusion

Answer 35

Integration of Models:

Practical kinds are useful for immediate applications, but psychiatric research should strive for MPC-based frameworks.
Aim: Identify patterns across individual symptom networks to ground classifications in causal mechanisms.
Philosophical Stance:

MPC and process ontology align with critical realism, acknowledging the reality of disorders while rejecting rigid, essentialist models.

Question 36

Positivism

Answer 36

A philosophical approach emphasising that all knowledge must be based on observable phenomena and empirical data. Rejects metaphysical or speculative explanations.

principle: Knowledge is derived from sense experience and verified through observation or experimentation.

ie. Behaviourism: Focuses on observable behaviours rather than internal mental states (e.g., B.F. Skinner’s operant conditioning experiments).

-ve = Overlooks subjective experiences and unobservable phenomena,

Question 37

Neo-Positivism (Logical Positivism/Logical Empiricism)

Answer 37

An evolved form of positivism that combines empirical data with logical analysis to clarify the meaning of scientific statements.

Core Principles:
Emphasis on verification: Statements must be empirically testable or analytically true (e.g., mathematical/logical truths).
Reductionism: Complex phenomena are reduced to observable, measurable components.
Focuses on language and meaning: Only meaningful statements are those that can be empirically verified or logically deduced.

ie. Intelligence testing: Logical positivism supports operational definitions of abstract concepts (e.g., defining intelligence by measurable IQ test performance).

-ve= Fails to account for the dynamic and relational nature of psychological phenomena