w1: Intro Philosophy of Psychology & conceptual analysis

Question 1

what is philosophy of psychology ?

Answer 1

Philosophy of psychology examines the nature of psychological phenomena, their explanations, and the methods used in psychological investigation.

It also critically considers the ethics of psychological knowledge and its application, ensuring that decisions include diverse perspectives rather than ignoring or marginalising certain voices.

Question 2

definition

Ontology

Answer 2

Definition: The study of what exists and the nature of reality.

**Key Questions: **What is reality? What kinds of things exist (e.g., minds, objects, or abstract concepts)?

In psychology, ontology determines how we conceptualise phenomena like the mind, identity, or emotions.

Question 3

definition

Epistemology

Answer 3

**Definition: **The study of knowledge, including its nature, sources, and how we acquire it.

Key Questions: How can we learn about reality? What methods are valid for making meaning?

In psychology, epistemology shapes how researchers believe phenomena can be understood (e.g., through subjective experiences or objective measures).

Question 4

definition

Theoretical Perspectives

Answer 4

**Definition: **Frameworks that outline relevant concepts and their interrelations.

These perspectives are value-laden, meaning they are influenced by the researcher’s context and beliefs, shaping what is studied and how findings are interpreted.

Question 5

definition

methodology

Answer 5

Definition: Practical strategies for conducting research.

Methodologies reflect ontological and epistemological beliefs, determining how psychological phenomena are measured or observed.

Question 6

Ontology: what exists in the human world that we can aquire knowledge ab

Realism

Answer 6

one reality exists

Question 7

ontology

Naive Realism

Answer 7

Reality can be uderstood using appropriate methods

The belief that reality exists independently of human perception and is straightforwardly knowable.

Question 8

ontology

Structural Realism

Answer 8

reality is described by scientific theory, but its underlying nature remains uncertain.

we can only know the structure of the world, not its deeper nature.

Question 9

ontology

Critcal Realism

Answer 9

Critical realism means understanding the world by looking beyond surface appearances and examining the deeper structures and causes that shape reality.

Critical realism is about recognising that there’s more to reality than what’s immediately observable. It seeks to uncover and critically analyse the underlying systems, structures, and causes that influence events and experiences.

Question 10

ontology

Relativism

Answer 10

multiple realities exist.

realities exist as multiple intangible mental constructions.

no reality beyond the subject.

Question 11

ontology

Bounded Relativism

Answer 11

recognising that some aspects of reality are constrained by shared experiences or objective elements.

mental constructions of reality are equal in space and time within boundaries.

Question 12

epistemology: how do we create knowledge

Objectivism

Answer 12

meaning exists within an object- an objective reality exists in an object independent of the subject

The belief that knowledge and reality can be observed and measured without subjective influence.
This view aligns with positivist approaches in psychology, focusing on empirical and measurable evidence.

Question 13

epistemology

Constructionism

Answer 13

Definition: Reality exists independently, but meaning is constructed through individual and social interactions.

meaning is created from interplay between the subject and object: subject constructs reality from the object

In psychology, it highlights the relationship between the observer and the observed phenomenon.

Question 14

Epistemology

Subjectivism

Answer 14

meaning exists with the subject: subject imporse meaning on an object

• there is no reality outside of the subject

Definition: Reality is entirely constructed by individual perspectives, emphasising personal experience as the primary source of knowledge.

Question 15

Epistemology and Research

Answer 15

If you use any kind of assessment of social phenomenon, then you’re requiring some sort of assumptions of how to make meaning of the world.

• The research method is going to reflect how the researcher believes reality is measured, and what reality is.

ie. if you believe that there is no meaning beyond the subject, then you will not give a close-ended, fixed and standardised questionarire, rather an open-ended one.

Question 16

meta-ontology definition

Answer 16

The study of the kinds of entities that a psychological theory assumes to exist. It involves examining what sorts of things (e.g., mental states, processes, behaviours) a theory regards as real or necessary for explaining psychological phenomena

The mind is not directly observable but we can conceptualise it.
lacks tangible referent- have to come up with a solution
= concepts

we conceptualise ideas such as identity

Question 17

Ontological Commitments definition

Answer 17

Assumptions about the existence of constructs like identity or consciousness.

Question 18

Implicit ontology definition

Answer 18

These are unstated or hidden beliefs about the nature of reality that influence how psychological phenomena are conceptualised, studied, and measured.

ie. A psychologist studying “intelligence” might implicitly assume it is a measurable and stable trait (e.g., IQ tests).

Question 19

consequences of implicit ontologies

Answer 19

Influence how concepts are measured.

Shape research methodologies.

Affect interpretations and applications of findings.

Introduce biases based on unstated assumptions.

Determine the scope of inquiry.

Question 20

Tangible and Intangible Referents

Answer 20

Tangible: Concrete, observable phenomena (e.g., behaviour).

Intangible: Abstract constructs (e.g., self-esteem), requiring operationalisation for study.

Question 21

concept definition

Answer 21

Definition: A concept is a mental representation or an idea that defines or categorises a psychological phenomenon. It is the building block of thought and scientific theory in psychology.

Concepts help describe, explain, and organise phenomena in a way that makes them accessible to research and interpretation.

Example:
The concept of “mind” differs between theories:

In dualism, the mind is distinct from the brain (non-physical entity).
In physicalism, the mind is reducible to brain processes.

This distinction influences how psychologists approach phenomena like consciousness or mental health

Question 22

conceptualization definition

Answer 22

Conceptualisation is the process of defining, refining, and specifying a concept to make it applicable for theoretical or empirical use. It determines how a concept is understood and measured in psychology.

It involves translating abstract ideas into clear, operational definitions that can guide research and practice.

Example:

The concept of “intelligence” has been conceptualised in different ways:
Traditional IQ tests conceptualise intelligence as measurable through problem-solving and reasoning tasks.
Howard Gardner’s theory of multiple intelligences conceptualises intelligence as encompassing diverse abilities, such as musical, interpersonal, and kinesthetic skills.

Question 23

Operalisation definition

Answer 23

Translating abstract concepts into measurable variables or methods.

involves turning theoretical ideas into specific, practical variables or procedures that can be studied empirically.

Example: The concept of stress might be operationalised as:
Physiological Measures: Cortisol levels in saliva.
Behavioural Indicators: Frequency of errors in a cognitive task.
Self-Report: Responses to a perceived stress questionnaire.

Question 24

conceptual definitions + operational definitions

Answer 24

Conceptual Definition: Provides a broad, theoretical explanation of a concept.
Operational Definition: Specifies how the concept will be measured or observed in a practical, research setting.

ie.
Example 1: Stress
Conceptual Definition:
Stress is a psychological and physiological response to challenging or threatening situations.

Operational Definition:
Stress is measured by:
Physiological Indicators: Cortisol levels in the saliva.
Behavioural Indicators: The number of errors made in a memory test under time pressure.
Self-Report: Scores on the Perceived Stress Scale (PSS).

Question 25

Psychological Interpretation (Schleiermacher)

Answer 25

Understanding external expressions of internal states (e.g., emotions) through empathy and perspective-taking.

• the idea that external petters contain true intentions. to understand these i need psychological interpretation- done through perspective taking and emphathy.

Question 26

Natural vs Human Science

Answer 26

Natural Sciences: Focus on objectivity, laws, and abstraction (removal of meaning or feelings).
Human Sciences: Emphasise meaning-making, lived experiences, and subjective interpretation.

Question 27

Objectification

Answer 27

By objectifying a phenomenon, researchers treat it as an external object that can be studied systematically.

This involves defining measurable variables, standardising methods, and removing subjective influences to enhance reliability and reproducibility.

Question 27

Abstraction in the context of scientific objectification

+ why its needed

Answer 27

The process of removing context or subjective meaning to focus on generalisable elements.

Why Abstraction is Needed:

Psychological phenomena, such as emotions, behaviours, or cognitive processes, are deeply personal and context-dependent.

Abstraction allows researchers to move beyond individual differences and focus on universal patterns or mechanisms.

Question 28

Hermeneutics

Answer 28

Hermeneutics is the philosophical study of interpretation, particularly focused on understanding meaning in texts, actions, or experiences.

’ how do we know something that can’t be directly observed by us?’

Question 29

Hermeutics Circle

Answer 29

The hermeneutic circle is a core concept in hermeutics, describing the dynamic process of understanding:

To understand the whole, we must interpret its parts.
But to interpret the parts, we need to understand the context of the whole.

This circular process highlights the iterative nature of meaning-making.

ie. in psychology
the whole: therapist seeks to understand the overarching narrative of a client’s life
the parts: The therapist examines individual events, such as a traumatic childhood memory, a career setback, or a relationship conflict.
However, the meaning of these events (the parts) depends on how they fit into the client’s broader life narrative (the whole).

circle:They explore specific memories (parts) to better understand the client’s life narrative.
Simultaneously, they use the broader life context (whole) to interpret the significance of those memories.
This iterative process deepens understanding over time.

Question 30

Hermeneutics:Lived,Experience,Expression,Interpretation

Answer 30

hermeneutics examines how human experiences are lived, expressed, and interpreted in a specific context. It emphasises understanding the subjective meaning of experiences rather than reducing them to objective data.

Lived Experience:
Definition: The raw, subjective experience of an individual.
ie. A person’s lived experience of grief might include feelings of sadness, anger,

Expression:
Definition: How the individual communicates or externalises their grief, verbally or non-verbally.
ie. crying for a grieving indiv.

Interpretation:
Definition: The process of understanding the meaning of the lived experience and its expression, both by the individual and others
ie.he meaning of grief in a culture that values communal mourning will differ from one where grieving is seen as a private, internal process.

Question 31

Epistemological Subject

Answer 31

The epistemological subject refers to the individual as a knower—someone whose unique perspective, experiences, and cognitive processes shape how they perceive, interpret, and understand reality.

concept highlights the subjective nature of knowledge acquisition and the interplay between personal experiences and the external world.

constructivist perspective.

Question 32

Subject vs. Object in Hermeneutics

Answer 32

In hermeneutics, the subject and object represent two key roles in the process of interpretation:

Subject: The experiencer or interpreter—someone actively seeking to understand.
Object: The phenomenon, text, or experience being interpreted or understood.

ie.
The Subject:
The therapist acts as the subject, interpreting the client’s narratives, behaviours, and emotions.

The Object:
The client’s trauma and its expression (e.g., stories, behaviours, physiological responses) are the object of interpretation.

Question 33

Hermeneutics: Dialogical Stance/Dialectic

Answer 33

dialogical stance refers to the idea that interpretation occurs through a dialogue or exchange between different perspectives. It views understanding as an ongoing, dynamic process where meaning emerges from the interaction of viewpoints.

The dialectic involves reconciling tensions or contradictions between perspectives to arrive at a deeper understanding.

ie.
the dialogue: Therapist and the client engage in a dialogue where each brings their own perspective
- client shares their feelings and problems

dialetic: therapist’s and client’s perspectives interact and influence each other
- therapist might challenge the clients self perception
- client, in turn, might resist, refine, or accept this interpretation, contributing their own insights and reshaping the understanding of their situation.

Question 34

Nomothetic vs. Idiographic Aim

Answer 34

these approaches describe two contrasting ways of understanding human behaviour and mental processes:

**Nomothetic: **Seeks universal laws or general principles that apply across individuals.
- Aims to discover universal psychological principles that explain behaviour across large populations.’

Idiographic: Focuses on the unique, subjective experiences of individuals, often rejecting broad generalisations.
- Focuses on the depth and detail of individual cases, exploring subjective experiences in their unique context.

Question 35

Hermeneutic Ontology

Answer 35

Hermeneutic ontology focuses on understanding human existence (“being”) through interpretation. It posits that meaning does not exist independently but emerges from the interaction between the individual and their context (social, cultural, historical).

ie.
What does it mean to “be” oneself?
Hermeneutic ontology approaches this question by exploring how individuals interpret and construct their sense of identity in relation to their life context.