W2: Conditioning and Brain Mechanisms Flashcards
1
Q
Operant conditioning
A
rewards and punishments increase or decrease the likelihood of an individual repeating an action in the future
2
Q
Positive reinforcement (O.C)
A
activation of reward pathways => increasing probability of behaviour
3
Q
Negative reinforcement (O.C)
A
increases probability of behaviour my removing discomfort
4
Q
Punishment
A
decreases the probability as we avoid punishment
5
Q
People still engage in addictive behaviour although there is punishment because
A
of contiguity => time interval between behaviour and punishment is long, while reinforcement (high) is immediate
6
Q
Classical conditioning
A
- unconditioned response = reflex elicited by a stimulus
- unconditioned stimulus
- neutral stimulus = it doesn’t initially elicit a response
- conditioned stimulus = a new stimulus that paired with UCS will elicit response
- conditioned response
7
Q
Extinction (C.C)
A
repeatedly presenting the CS alone until the CS stops to elicit a CR
8
Q
Abstinent drug users may experience
A
conditioned drug responses to people, places -> prevent relapse by change of environment
9
Q
Categories of conditioned responses
A
- Drug-opposite CRs
- Conditioned withdrawal
- Conditioned Tolerance
- Drug-like conditioned responses
10
Q
Drug Opposite CRs
A
- repetitive use of the same drug can produce CRs that are opposite to the direct effects
- can mimic withdrawal symptoms
- can cause relapse in abstinent people
11
Q
Conditioned withdrawal
A
experience withdrawal symptoms through cues in their environment that remind of drug
12
Q
Conditioned tolerance
A
- reduction of drug effect with repeated administration
- through conditioned responses
- might cause overdose when in new environment
13
Q
Drug like conditioned responses
A
-suggestion that the body’s reaction to the drug rather than the drug’s effects is conditioned
= needle freaking
14
Q
Social learning theory
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the environment can affect use but we also influence environment = reciprocal determinism
15
Q
Key principles of social learning theory
A
- modelling
- past learning doesn’t completely determine what we do next
- reinforcement and punishment are indirect factors of learning
- expectation of reinforcement or punishment can be as powerful as actual
16
Q
Self-efficacy
A
- degree to which one feels competent to perform
- prob of someone quitting smoking depends on how much he depends he will
17
Q
Self-efficacy types important for prevention
A
resistance
harm-reduction
18
Q
self-efficacy types important for treatment and relapse prevention
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action
coping
recovery
19
Q
Dual System Theory
A
- people have poor access to the functioning of their own cognitive processes
- rather than reporting on which processes occurred, people tend to come up with guess explanations
20
Q
cognitive decoupling
A
people think hypothetically about the world
21
Q
cognitive misers
A
we tend to avoid effortful thinking whenever possible
22
Q
Automatic cognitive processing system 1
A
- outside of conscious awareness
- cant be examined directly by individual
- rapid
- environmentally triggered
- produces responses in absence of system 2
- contextualizes info
23
Q
Controlled Cognitive processing S2
A
- investing attention
- conscious monitoring
- dependent on system 1 input
- reciprocal effects on the contents of system 1
24
Q
Tiffany’s Craving Model
A
- dependence as form of automatic behaviour
- development of drug-use representations in memory by mental schemas
- efortless and habitual over time
25
Two components of craving (Tiff)
Automatic Craving
| Controled Craving
26
Automated Craving
activation of drug-use representations in memory which lead to drug use
27
Controlled craving
intense feeling of wanting and needing something
28
Controlled craving only occurs when
an obstacle prevents the aims of the automatic process from being achieved
29
Attentional biases increase
the motivation to seek out and use substances because we pay attention to things that matter to us
30
Modified stroop tasks showed that
attentional biases are identified when participant takes longer to respond to the colour of alcohol words compared to neutral words
31
Franken's model of drug craving
-hypervigilance for drug stimuli => increased dopaminergic activity in the reward pathway => driver of attentional bias
32
Houben and Wiers found positive associations with
alcohol were related to alcohol consumption, but only among those who scored poorly on response inhibition tasks
33
Many drugs of dependence selectively impair
controlled processing in acute situations of use, while automatic processing seems almost unaffected => behaviour likely to be guided by previously learned patterns of behaviour
34
3 failures in reasoning Toplak (gambling)
- Overriding system 1
- Incomplete system 1 outputs (failure to express emotional reactions)
- Missing mental software (not enough or false knowledge)
35
Common routes of administration
```
oral
injection
inhalation
application to skin
through mucous membranes
```
36
Speed of effect also guides choice, since the fastest route is
injalation and injection
- medium via mucous membranes
- slowest is oral
37
The sooner the effect
the more reinforcing
38
A slower rise guarantees an effect for
a longer time
39
Degree to which the drug will be dissolved in membrane lipids (of cells)
determines success
40
The greater proportion of ionised molecules in the drug, the
slower the rate of movement of the drug across membrane
41
Diffusion of drug
the greater the difference in drug concentration on each side of the membrane, the more rapid the movement
42
Drug distribution
during the drugs journey to the brain, some of it might leave the blood stream and be metabolised, leaving less of the drug to reach the brain
43
Drug excretion
elimination of the drugs and its metabolites via expired air, bodily fluids, kidneys
44
Metabolism occur at a greater rate when
concentration of drug in the body is higher and then gradually slows down when drug is eliminated
45
Excerption
some drugs (alcohol) metabolise at constant rate and require a particular enzyme, which is limited
46
Agonist
- drugs that binds to the receptor and turns neutron on
| - intensity of drug effect is associated with the number of receptors that are occupied by the agonist and activated
47
Antagonist
- binds to the receptors and prevents agonists from binding=>won't switch it on
- sometimes used to treat dependence
48
Monoamines
-NT associated with cognition, emotions and behaviour
49
Most important monoamines for understanding addictive behaviours are
Dopamine
Serotonin
Noradrenaline
50
Dopamine
- euphoria
- motivation
- arousal
- reinforcement
- reward through signaling cascades
51
Serotonin
- stabilizes mood
- well being
- happiness
52
Noradrenaline
help body respond to stress and mobilises for action
53
Types of Drug Tolerance
Neuroadaptation
Cross-tolerance
Metabolic tolerance
Cellular tolerance
54
Neuroadaptation
homeostasis in the brain - steady effect
55
Cross-tolerance
tolerance to one drug will lead to tolerance in other drugs of the same class
56
Metabolic tolerance
- pharmacokinetic
| - speed at which the body metabolises the drug increases over time => toxicity
57
Cellular tolerance
- pharmacodynamics
- consequence of changes in number of receptors and their functions + alterations to the responsiveness of post-synaptic neurons
58
Withdrawal syndrome
- opposite of the drug's effects
| - can cause seeking of negative reinforcement by taking the drug again
59
Half life of a drug
the time it takes for the amount of a drug's active substance in your body to reduce by half
60
The shorter the half life
the more intense the withdrawal syndrome
61
Psychological drug dependence is characterised by
compulsion and craving
62
Physical drug dependence is characterised by
the experience of a physical withdrawal syndrome
63
Traditional view on adolescence
as a period of development associated with progressively greater efficiency of cognitive capacities, which is dependent on the maturation of the PFC
64
During adolescence, there is a bias by
functionally mature subcortical relative to less mature cortical circuitry -> imbalance in reliance of systems
65
The mechanisms that explain changes in risk taking behaviour and impulsivity can be related to
frontostriatal circuitry and functional strengthening of connections
66
Triadic model explains that
motivated behaviour has 3 neural circuits
-casey and jones
67
The systems of the triadic model
- Approach system: ventral striatum (rewarding cues)
- Avoidance system: amygdala
- Regulatory system: PFC
68
Motivation can modulate cognitive control by
reward
| and capacity to exert control (challenged upon appetitive cues)
69
Sensitivity to rewards and incentives peaks during
adolescence (presence of peers is a risk)
70
The circuit that undergoes most change during adolescence is
the fontrostriatal circuit
71
During adolescence, the receptors that are at peak in density are
dopamine D1 and D2 in the striatum
72
Changes in dopamine-rich circuitry relates to
sensitivity to reward
73
The difference in development of striatal regions and the PFC is that
the stratal regions develop sooner while the PFC undergoes delayed maturation
74
Positive association between ventral stratum activity to large reward and
the likelihood of engaging in risky behaviour
75
In boys, the impulsivity rating is inversely correlated to
vmPFC volume
76
Exaggerated ventral striatal plays role in
level of excitement because it is a representation of appetitive cues in the absence of a mature cognitive control response
77
Substance reinforce the
mesolimbic dopamine transmission with acute activations of neurons in frontolimbic circuitry rich in dopamine, including the ventral striatum
78
In alcohol dependent adolescents it is observed
smaller frontal and hippocampal volumes, altered white matter microstructure, poorer memory
79
Hippocampal volume and age of first use
possitive association
80
Hippocampal volume and duration
negative association
81
The energy model of self regulation
self reg is a resource that can run out
82
Gailliot measured blood glucose level before and after self-control activities and found
- reduction in blood glucose after task
| - reduced level of glucose => poorer performance
83
Personality states
transient characteristics
84
Personality traits
vary very little over time and situations
85
Trait theories of personality
identify core traits to categorise individuals
86
Tri-dimensional theory of addictive behaviour Cloninger
3 traits that predispose individuals towards dependence:
novelty seeking
harm avoidance
reward dependence
87
Sensation/novelty seeking predicts
addictive behaviour especially in early stages
88
Third variable cause
particular traits could seem to cause addictive behaviour, but in fact they do so only indirectly (to cope with smth)
89
Rational choice theory
addictive behaviours are rational to the extent that they are directed towards maximising benefits for the individual
90
Problem of the rational choice theory is that it
doesn't distinguish between those who use and want to, and those who use but want to stop
91
Rational choice theory conceptualised addictive behaviour at level of
groups not individuals, therefore increasing the costs of substances should reduce use
92
Instrumental rationality
tend to make choices that lead them to achieving their goals in most efficient way
93
Epistemically rationality
evaluate contents of their mind to ensure that what they know are consistent with the reality
94
Incentive-sensitization theory
persistent use of drugs leads to alteration in the dopaminergic reward system
95
Incentive salience
cue becomes associated with positive reward
96
Most drugs excite this reward systems, leading to
disproportionate increase in incentive sensitisation of drug related cues => compulsion to use drugs
97
Drug wanting
attribution of incentive salience to drug stimuli => stronger urge
98
Drug liking
separate neural pathways in the brain and refers to the anticipating hedonic effects of the drug
99
Incentive sensitisation theory lacks
evidence from human studies
100
Problem of incentive sensitisation theory
craving not often associated with use or relapse
101
Inhibitory dysregulation theory
addictive behaviour as a problem of compulsive behaviour
-impairment in ACC and OFC (inhibitory control)
102
Incentive motivation (Franken)
cognitive and affective state triggered by stimuli associated with the perception of unconditioned stimuli
103
Drug related stimuli can elicit
classically conditioned responses both physiological (dopamine) as subjective (craving)
104
Psychological approaches
- craving as a continuous measurable state that can also be present in non-addicted subjects
- in the past= homeostatic dysregulation theory (drug needed to establish homeostasis after withdrawal)
- incentive motivational framework (conditioned appetite)
- attentional system as major role in emotional system (reward/punishment salience)
105
To prepare for an action, we need
attention
motivation
emotion
106
2 categories of attention
1. non-specific general state of arousal
| 2. selective (processing of relevant stimuli and inhibition of less relevant)
107
Selective attention can be
- voluntary (actively searching, top-down)
| - involuntary (novel stimuli)
108
Limited capacity mechanism
the more attention focused on a secondary stimulus, the less cognitive capacity available for primary task
109
In the emotional stroop task,
reaction times of colour naming are slower on words with an emotional content
110
Attentional bias for drug cues
because positively valenced stimuli -> making drugs to have attention grabbing properties
111
Processing of appetitive info has an effect on
cortical measures of attention such as ERP and EMG
112
The present view explains that craving itself isn't responsible for the disruption of a secondary task, but rather
the accompanied attentional bias for drug-related stimuli
113
Preconscious processing
presentation of emotional info can influence behaviour unconsciously
114
Neurobiological approaches
- incentive sensitisation theory => drugs enhance the mesolimbic dopamine transmission => attribute incentive salience to the perception of events associated
- dopamine antagonist as a way to help addicts (animal studies) => reduce appetitive approach motivation towards rewards
- dopamine triggers attention towards conditioned incentives => dopamine antagonist modulate selective attention and craving
115
When general selective attention is increased by dopamine antagonists, then
automatic processes are consequently decreased and attention for drug cues will be reduces
116
ACC is involved in
selective attention
117
Metabolism in superior cingulate is increased by
dopamine agonists and decreased by dopamine antagonists
118
NA and ACC are a part of a corticostriatal circuit involved in
stimulus reward learning
119
The dopamine system of the corticostriatal circuit consists of
ACC
amygdala
NA
120
The dopamine corticostriatal circuit has a role in
integrating attentional functioning
| signaling reward
121
The integration model
attentional bias and craving are able to modulate each other
122
Attentional bias contributes to addictive behaviour in 3 ways
1- automatic selection process = detect drug cues
2- attention related cognitive process = if cue detected, it is automatically processed and difficult to shift attention
3- limited capacity of attention = subsequent failure in processing competitive cues
123
Integration model stresses the need to
incorporate the extinction of automatic responses in the extinction processes
