vocabulary Flashcards
1
Q
absolute threshold
A
the smallest amount of stimulus that can be detected
2
Q
accommodation
A
the incorporation fo new learning into an existing schema that requires revision of the schema
3
Q
achievement motivation
A
a desire to excel or outperform others
4
Q
acquisition
A
the development of a learned response
5
Q
action potential
A
the electrical signal arising in a neurone’s axon
6
Q
actor-observer bias
A
emphasizing dispositional attributions to explain the behaviour of others while emphasizing situational attributions to explain our own behaviour
7
Q
adaption
A
a change because of natural selection
8
Q
addiction
A
a compulsive physical or psychology dependence on a substance or activity that continues in spite of negative consequences
9
Q
adolescence
A
a period of development beginning at puberty and ending at young adulthood
10
Q
affect heuristic
A
a rule of thumb in which we choose between alternatives based on emotion or “gut” reactions to stimuli
11
Q
affiliation
A
being associated with other people
12
Q
agoraphobia
A
unrealistic fear of open spaces, being outside the home alone, or being in .a crowd
13
Q
agreeableness
A
big five personality trait characterized by trustworthiness, altruism, trust, compliance, modesty, and tender mindedness
14
Q
alarm reaction
A
the first stages of the general adaptation syndrome (GAS) characterized by sympathetic arousal and mental clarity
15
Q
algorithm
A
a precise, step-by-step set of rules that will reliably generate a solution to a problem
16
Q
alleles
A
one of several versions of a gene
17
Q
example of allele
A
having A, B, or O blood type
18
Q
alpha waves
A
the relatively slow brain waves of a relaxed, awake state
19
Q
altruism
A
behaviour on behalf of another that fails to benefit or harms the individual performing it
20
Q
amygdala
A
a subcortical structure located in the temporal lobe believed to participate in emotional processing
21
Q
anorexia nervosa
A
an eating disorder characterized by the maintenance of unusually low body weight and a distorted body image, usually achieved by restricting food
22
Q
antisocial personality disorder
A
a disorder characterized by an unusual lack of remorse, empathy, or regard for normal social rules and conventions
23
Q
aphasia
A
impairment of language
24
Q
broca’s area
A
in the left hemisphere
damage to it causes impaired speech
25
wernicke's area
in the right hemisphere
| damage to it causes impaired understanding
26
assimilation
the incorporation of new learning into an existing schema without needed to revise the schema
27
example of assimilation
seeing a dog and thinking it's a cat because it has four legs
28
associative learning
the formation of associations, or connections, among stimuli and behaviours
29
attachment
emotional bond linking an infant to a parent or caregiver
30
attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)
a disorder characterized by either unusual inattentiveness, hyperactivity with impulsivity, or both
31
attribution
a judgement about the cause of a person's behaviour
32
the two types of attributions
dispositional
| situational
33
autism spectrum disorder
a disorder characterized by deficits in social relatedness and communication skills that are often accompanied by repetitive, ritualistic behaviour
34
autobiographical memories
semantic or episodic memories that reference the self
35
autonomic nervous system
the division of the peripheral nervous system that directs the activity of glands, organs, and smooth muscles
involuntary bodily functions
36
availability heuristic
a rule of thumb in which the frequency of an event's occurrence is predicted by the ease with which the event is brought to mind
37
aversion therapy
an application of counterconditioning in which a conditioned stimulus (CS) formerly paired with a pleasurable unconditioned response (USC) is instead paired with an unpleasant USC
38
example of aversion therapy
treating alcoholism with antabuse
39
axon
the branch of a neurone that is usually responsible for transmitting informations to other neurones
40
basal ganglia
a collection of subcortical structures that participate in the control of movement, specifically fine motor skills
41
basilar membrane
membrane in the cochlea
42
behaviourism
an approach that features the study and careful measurement of observable behaviours
43
notable behaviourists
B.F. Skinner
Ivan Pavlov
John Watson
44
beta waves
smaller and faster brain waves, typically indicating mental activity and alert waking
45
big five personality traits
```
conscientiousness
agreeableness
neuroticism
openness
extroversion
```
46
binge-eating disorder
an eating disorder characterized by eating abnormally large amounts of food at one sitting and feeling that eating is out of control, without compensatory behaviours such as induced vomiting or the use of laxatives
47
binocular cues
a depth cue that requires the use of both eyes
48
biological clock
an internal mechanism that provides an approximate schedule for various physical processes
49
biopsychosocial model
a model that sees health as the result of biological, psychological, and social factors
50
bipolar disorder
a mood disorder characterized by alternating periods of mania and depression
51
body dysmorphic disorder
a disorder characterized by the unrealistic perception of physical flaws
52
body mass index (BMI)
a height-to-weight ratio used to identify healthy weight, underweight, and obesity
53
what is the problem with BMI?
it doesn't account for muscle mass
54
borderline personality disorder
a disorder characterized by instability in interpersonal relationships, self-image, and emotion
55
bottom-up processing
perception based on building simple input into more complex perceptions
56
brainstem components
midbrain
pons
medulla
57
brief therapy
psychotherapy provided in a short time frame, usually between three and five sessions
58
bulimia nervosa
an eating disorder characterized by bingeing, purging, and having feelings of depression, disgust, and lost control
59
bystander intervention
the study of situational variables related to helping a stranger, most notably the decreased likelihood of helping as the number of bystanders increases
60
cannon-bard theory
a theory of emotion featuring the simultaneous and independent occurrence of physical sensations and subjective feelings during an emotional experience
61
example with cannon-bard theory in use
seeing a snake will prompt both fear (emotional response) and a racing heartbeat (physical response) simultaneously
62
case study
an in-depth analysis of the behaviour of one person or a small number of people
63
catharsis
a theory of emotion that views emotion as a reservoir that fills up and spills over; it predicts that expressing an emotion will reduce arousal
64
cell body
the large, central mass of a neurone, containing the nucleus
65
cerebellum
a structure attached to the brainstem that participates in skilled movement, and in humans, complex cognitive processing
66
main functions of the cerebellum
coordination and balance
67
chunking
the process of grouping similar or meaningful information together
68
cingulate cortex
a subcortical structure above the corpus callosum. its anterior (forward) segment participates in decision making and emotion while its posterior (rear) segment participates in memory and visual processing
69
circadian rhythm
a daily biological internal clock
70
classical conditioning
type of learning in which associations are formed between two stimuli that occur sequentially in time
71
clinical psychology
the psychological perspective that seeks to explain, define, and treat abnormal behaviours
72
cochlea
structure in the inner ear that contains auditory receptors
73
cognition
internal mental processes including information processing, thinking, reasoning, and problem solving
74
cognitive-behavioural therapy (CBT)
a combination of cognitive restructuring with behavioural treatments that has been shown to be effective in reducing symptoms of many psychological disorders
75
cognitive consistency
a preference for holding congruent attitudes and beliefs
76
cognitive dissonance
the uncomfortable state that occurs when behaviours and attitudes do not match
77
how is cognitive dissonance resolved?
through attitude changes
78
cognitive psychology
the psychological perspective that investigates information processing, thinking, reasoning, and problem solving
79
cognitive restructuring
a technique used in cognitive therapies in which new, ration beliefs replace the earlier, irrational beliefs held by the client
80
comorbid
two or more disorders in the same individuals
81
compliance
agreement with a request from a person with no perceived authority
82
compulsions
repetitive, ritualistic behaviour with high anxiety
83
what disorders are compulsions often found in?
OCD and autism
84
concrete operational stage
Jean Piaget's theory of development
ages 6 to 12
characterized by logical but not abstract reasoning
85
conditioned (secondary) reinforcer
a reinforcer that gains value from being associated with other things that are valued
86
example of secondary reinforcer
money
| grades
87
conditioned response (CR)
a response learned through classical conditioning
88
conditioned stimulus (CS)
an environmental event whose significance is learned through classical conditioning
89
cones
a photoreceptor un the retina that processes colour and fine detail
90
confirmation bias
the tendency to notice and remember instances that support your beliefs more than instances that contradict them
91
conformity
matching behaviours and appearance to perceived social norms
92
confounding variables
variables that are irrelevant to the hypothesis being testes but can alter a researcher's conclusions
93
conscientiousness
a big five personality trait characterized by competence, order, dutifulness, achievement striving, self-discipline, and deliberation
94
control group
a group that experiences all experimental procedures with that exception of exposure to the independent variable
95
conventional morality
Lawrence Kohlberg's stages of moral development
ages 7 to 11
moral choices are made according to law or public opinion
96
example of conventional mortality
a ten year old would not steal because it is against the law
97
corpus callosum
a wide band of nerve fibres connecting the right and left cerebral hemispheres
98
correspondence bias
the tendency to view behaviour as a result of disposition, even when the behaviour can be explained by the situation in which it occurs
99
cortisol
stress hormone released from the adrenal gland
100
cross-sectional study
an experimental design for assessing age-related changes in which data are obtained simultaneously from people of differing ages
101
crystallized intelligence
the ability to think logically using specific learned knowledge
102
cue
stimulus that aids retrieval
103
declarative (explicit) memory
a consciously retrieved memory that is easy to verbalize
104
deep brain stimulation
electrical stimulation applied through surgically implanted electrodes that is used to treat some anxiety and mood disorders
105
defence mechanism
a protective behaviour that reduces anxiety
106
deindividuation
immersion of an individual within a group, leading to anonymity
107
delta wave
the large, slow brain waves associated with deep sleep with non-rapid eye movement
108
delusion
a false, illogical belief
109
dendrites
a branch from the neural cell body that usually receives input from other neurones
110
dependent variable
a measure that demonstrates the effects of an independent variable; the "result" part of a hypothesis
111
depth perception
the ability to use the two-dimensional image projected on the retina to perceive three dimensions
112
descriptive methods
research methods designed for making careful, systematic observations
113
developmental psychology
the psychological perspective that examines the normal changes in behaviour that occur across the life span
114
DSM-5
a system for classification of psychological disorders published by the American Psychiatric Association
115
diathesis-stress model
a model that suggests that the experience of stress interacts with an individual's biological predisposition to produce a psychological disorder
116
difference threshold
the smallest detectable difference between two stimuli
117
discrimination (classical conditioning)
a learned ability to distinguish between stimuli
118
discrimination
unfair behaviour based on the stereotyping and prejudice
119
display rules
a cultural norm that signifies when, where, and how a person should express an emption
120
dispositional attribution
a judgment assigning the cause of a person's behaviour to personal qualities or characteristics
121
dissociative disorders
a disorder characterized by disruptions in a person's identity, memory, or consciousness
122
door-in-the-face technique
a persuasion technique in which compliance with a target request is preceded by a large, unreasonable request
123
double-blind procedure
a research design that controls for biases in which neither the participant nor the experimenter observing knows whether the participant was given an active substance or a placebo
124
dreaming
a mental state that usually occurs during sleep that features visual imagery
125
drive
a state of tension and arousal triggered by cues important for survival
126
drive reduction
the state of relief and reward produced by removing the tension and arousal of the drive state
127
ego
the self that others see
128
egocentrism
limitations on the ability to understand the point of view of other people
129
elaboration likelihood model (ELM)
a model that predicts responses to persuasive messages by distinguishing between the central and the peripheral routes to persuation
130
electroconvulsive therapy (ECT)
a biological treatment in which seizures are induced in an unconscious patient; it is primarily used to treat mood disorders that have not responded to medication or other treatment
131
embryo
the developing human organism from about 3 to 8 weeks
132
emotion-focused coping
a combination of arousal, physical sensations, and subjective feelings that occurs spontaneously in response to environmental stimuli
133
encoding
the transformation of information from one form to another
134
endocrine system
the system for releasing hormones into the blood
135
eneric nervous system
a division of the autonomic nervous system consisting of nerve cells embedded in the lining of the gastrointestinal system
136
epigenetic
the study of gene-environment interactions in the production of phenotypes
137
episodic memory
a memory from personal experience
138
evolution
descent with modification from a common ancestor
139
evolutionary psychology
a psychological perspective that investigates how physical structure and behaviour have been shaped by their contributions to survival and reproduction
140
exemplar
a specific member of a category used to represent the category
141
exhaustion
a third and last stage of the general adaptation syndrome (GAS), characterized by depletion of physical and psychological resources
142
experiment
a research methods that tests hypothesis and can prove causation
143
experimental group
a group of participants who are exposed to the independent variable
144
extinction
the reduction of a learned response
145
extrinsic reward
a reward from an outside source
146
extroversion
a big five personality trait characterized by warmth, gregariousness, assertiveness, activity, excitement seeking, and positive emotion
147
family therapy
a type of therapy in which family members participate individually and in combination with other family members
148
fetal alcohol syndrome
a condition resulting from alcohol consumption by a mother during pregnancy that produces physical abnormalities
149
fetus
a developing organism from 8 to 40 weeks
150
fitness
the ability of one genotype to reproduces more successfully relative to other genotypes
151
fixed-interval schedule
a schedule of reinforcement in which a reinforcement is always given after a certain amount of time
152
fixed-ratio schedule
a schedule of reinforcement in which a reinforcement is always given after a set number of behaviours
153
flashbulb memory
an especially vivid and detailed memory of an emotional event
154
flow
a state characterized by complete absorption in a current activity
155
fluid intelligence
the ability to think logically without the need to use learned knowledge
STREET SMARTS
156
foot-in-the-door technique
a persuasive technique in which compliance with a small request is followed by compliance of a larger request that might otherwise have been rejected
157
formal operational stage
Jean Piaget's stage of development
ages 12 to adulthood
mature reasoning capabilities
158
fovea
area of the retina that is specialized for highly detailed vision
159
free association
psychoanalytical technique of encouraging a patient to say whatever comes to mind, without attempting to censor the content
160
frontal lobe
responsible for some of the most complex cognitive processes
161
functional fixedness
a barrier to successful problem solving in which a concept is considered only in its most typical form
162
functionalism
an approach that saw behaviour as purposeful and contributing to survival
163
gamma waves
brain waves that indicate attention to sensory input
164
gate theory
theory that suggests that input from touch fibres competes with input from pain receptors, possibly preventing pain messages from reaching the brain
165
gene
a small segment of DNA located in a particular place on a chromosome
166
gene expression
the process in which genetic instructions are converted into a feature of a living organism
167
general adaptation syndrome (GAS)
a three-stage model for an organism's response to stressors, created by Hans Selye
168
general intelligence (g)
a measure of an individual's overall intelligence as opposed to specific abilities
169
generalization
the tendency to respond to stimuli that are similar to an original conditioned stimulus
170
genetic drift
change in a population's genes from one generation to the next because of chance or accident
171
genotype
a individual's profile of alleles
172
gestalt psychology
an approach that saw experience as being different than the sum of its elements
173
glia
nervous system cells that perform a variety of support functions, including formation of the blood-brain barrier and myelin
174
glucose
sugar that plays an important role in hunger levels
175
group polarization
the intensifying of an attitude following discussion
176
group therapy
psychotherapy conducted within a group of people rather than individually
177
groupthink
a type of flawed decision making in which a group doesn't question its decisions critically
178
habituation
a simple form of learning in which reactions to repeated stimuli are unchanging
179
hallucination
a false perception
180
hallucinogen
a drug that stimulates the experience of false perceptions
181
health psychology
a branch of psychology that investigates the relationship between psychological variables and health
182
heritability
the statistical likelihood that variations observed in a population are because of genetics
183
heterozygous
having two alleles for one gene
184
heuristic
a shortcut to problem solving; a rule of thumb
185
higher-order conditioning
learning in which stimuli associated with a conditioned stimulus also elicits a conditioned response
186
hippocampus
subcortical structure that participates in memory
187
homeostasis
a steady internal balance or equilibrium
188
homozygous
having two of the same alleles for one gene
189
humanistic psychology
an approach that saw people as inherently good and motivated to learn and improve
190
hypnosis
an altered state of consciousness characterized by relaxation and increased suggestibility
191
hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis
a circuit that responds to perceived stressors by initiating the release of cortisol into the blood stream
192
hypothalamus
a subcortical structure that participates in the regulation of primitive urges such as thirst, temperature, hunger, sexual behaviour, and aggression
193
hypothesis
a proposed explanation for a situation
194
id
the self that contains primitive drives present at birth
195
identity
a consistent, unified sense of self
196
imitation
copying behaviour that is unlikely to occur naturally and spontaneously
197
immune system
the body system that defends against infection and cancer
198
incentive
a reward that pulls an organism's behaviour in a particular direction
199
independent variable
an experiment variable controlled and manipulation by the experimenter; the "if ___ happens" part of a hypothesis
200
inferential statistics
statistical methods that allow experimenters to extend conclusions from samples to larger populations
201
information processing
a continuum including attention, sensation, perception, learning, memory, and cognition
202
informed consent
permission obtained from a research participant after the risks/benefits of an experimental procedure have been explained
203
inhibition
when a conditioned stimulus predicts the nonoccurrence of an unconditioned stimulus
204
insecure attachment
a pattern of infant-caregiver bonding that can take several forms but is generally characterized as less desirable for the child's outcomes
205
insomnia
a sleep disorder characterized by an inability to either initiate or maintain normal sleep
206
instincts
an inborn pattern of behaviour elicited by environmental stimuli
207
insula
regions of cortex located at the junction of the frontal and temporal lobes
208
intellectual disability
| mental retardation
a conditioned diagnosed in individuals with IQ scores lower than 70 and poor adaptive behaviours
209
intelligence
the ability to understand complex ideas, adapt effectively to the environment, learn from experience, engage in reasoning, and overcome obstacles
210
intelligence quotient
a measure of individual intelligence relative to a statistically normal curve
211
inference
competition between new and old information in memory
212
interpersonal sef
the self we are in the presence of other people
213
intrinsic rewards
a reward that arises internally
214
introspection
a personal observation of your own thoughts, feelings, and behaviour
215
introversion
a big five personality trait characterized by coolness, reserve, passivity, inactivity, caution, and negative emotion
216
iris
the brightly coloured circular muscle surrounding the pupil of the eye
217
james-lange theory
a theory that proposes that physical sensations lead to subjective feelings
218
example with james-lange theory in use
you see a snake which causes your heart to race (physical response) which causes you to feel fear (emotional response)
219
just-world belief
the assumption that good things happen to good people and bad things happen to bad people
220
language
a system for communicating thoughts and feelings using arbitrary signals
221
latent inhibition
the slower learning that occurs in the absence of reinforcement
222
learned helplessness
a state in which experiencing random or uncontrolled consequences leads to feelings of helplessness and possibly depression
223
learning
a relatively permanent change in behaviour or the capacity for behaviour to change due to experience
224
lens
the clear structure behind the pupil that bends light toward the retina
225
leptin
a hormone secreted by fat cells that aids the body in maintaining an appropriate level of stored fat
226
external locus of control
sees outcomes as resulting from luck or chance
227
internal locus of control
sees outcomes as the result of individual effort
228
long-term memory
the final stage of the atkinson-shiffrin model that is the location of permanent memories
229
long-term potentiation (LTP)
the enhancement of communication between two neurones resulting from their synchronous activation
230
longitudinal study
an experimental design for assessing age-related changes in which data are obtained from the same individuals at intervals over a long period of time
231
low-balling
making further requests of a person who has already committed to a course of action
232
lucid dreaming
a conscious awareness of dreaming accompanied by the ability to control the content of the dream
233
lymphocytes
white blood cells that are products of the immune system
234
major depressive disorder
a disorder characterized by lengthy periods of depressed mood, loss of pleasure in normal activities, disturbances in sleep and appetite, difficulty concentrating, feelings of hopelessness, and possible thoughts of suicide
235
seasonal affective disorder (SAD)
a mood disorder in which depression occurs regularly at same time each year, usually during the winter months
236
mania
a period of unrealistically elevated mood
237
mean
the numerical average set of scores
238
median
the halfway mark in set of data, with half of the scores above it and half below
239
meditation
a voluntary alternation of consciousness characterized by positive emotion and absence of thought
240
medulla
the brainstem structure that lies just above the spinal cord
241
memory
the ability to retain knowledge
242
menopause
the complete cessation of a woman's menstrual cycles
243
mere exposure effect
a situation in which repeated exposure increases liking
244
shaping
a method for increasing the frequency of behaviours that never or rarely occur
245
midbrain
part if the brainstem that lies between the pons and the cerebral hemispheres
246
migration
movement to a new location
247
mind
the brain and its activities, including thought, emotion, and behviour
248
mixed longitudinal design
a method for assessing age-related changes that combines the cross-sectional and longitudinal approaches by observing a cross-section of participants over a shorter period than is used typically in longitudinal studies
249
mnemonics
memory aids that link new information to well-known information
250
mode
the most frequently occurring score in a set of data
251
monocular cue
a depth cue that requires that only requires the use of one eye
252
morphemes
the smallest component of speech that carries meaning
253
motivation
a process that arouses, maintains, and guides behaviour toward a goal
254
motivated forgetting
failure to retrieve negative memories
255
mutation
an error that occurs when DNA is replicated
256
myelin
the insulating material that covers some axons
257
narcissistic personality disorder
a disorder characterized by grandiosity, need for admiration, and low empathy
258
narcolepsy
a sleep disorder characterized by the intrusion of rapid eye movement phenomena into waking
259
natural sciences
sciences that study the physical and biological events that occur in nature
260
natural observation
an in-depth study in its natural setting
261
nature
the contribution of heredity to our physical structure and behaviours
262
near-death experience
an altered state of consciousness reported by people who were close to death because of cardiac or other medical problems that features out-of-body experiences, light-at-the-end-of-a-tunnel perceptions, and a state of calmness
263
negative punishment
a method for reducing behaviour by removing something desirable whenever the target behaviour occurs
264
negative reinforcement
a method for increasing behaviour that allows an organism to escape or avoid an unpleasant consequence
265
neo-freudian
a theorist who attempts to update and modify freud's original theory of personality
266
neurofeedback
a type of biofeedback used to treat ADHD and seizures by teaching the client to keep measures of brain activity within a certain range
267
neurones
a cell of the nervous system that is specialized to send and receive neural message
268
neuroticism
a big five personality trait characterized by anxiety, angry hostility, depression, self-consciousness, impulsivity, and vulnerability
269
neurotransmitter
a chemical messenger that communicates across a synapse
270
non-associative learning
learning that involves changes in the magnitude of responses to stimuli
271
implicit memories
an unconsciously and effortlessly retrieves memory that is difficult to verbalize, such as a memory for classical conditioning, procedural learning, and priming
272
non-rapid eye movement sleep
the components of sleep characterized by theta and delta wave activity and deep physical relaxation
273
normal distribution
a symmetrical probability function
274
nucleus accumbens
a subcortical structure that participates in reward and addiction
275
null hypothesis
a hypothesis stating the default position that there is no real difference between two measures
276
nurture
the contributions of environmental factors and experience to our physical structure and behaviours
277
obedience
compliance with a request from an authority figure
278
object permanence
the ability to form mental representations of objects that are no longer present
279
objectivity
the practice of basing conclusions on facts, without the influence of personal emotion or bias
280
observational learning
learning that occurs when one organism watches the actions of another organism
281
obsession
an intrusive, distressing thought
282
obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD)
a disorder associated with intrusive obsessions and compulsions
283
occipital lobe
location of the primary visual cortex
284
olfactory bulb
one of two structures below the frontal lobes of the brain that receive input from the olfactory receptors in the nose
285
olfactory nerve
a nerve carrying olfactory information from the olfactory receptors to the olfactory bulbs
286
panic attack
the experience of intense fear and the autonomic arousal in the absence of a real threat
many believe they're having a heart attack
287
panic disorder
a disorder characterized by repeated panic attacks and fear of future attacks
288
papillae
small bumps on the tongue that contain taste buds
289
parasympathetic nervous system
part of the autonomic nervous system associated with rest, repair, and energy storage
290
parietal lobe
location of the primary somatosensory cortex
291
partial reinforcement
the reinforcement of a desired behaviour on some occasions, but not others
292
peer review
the process of having other experts examine research prior to its publication
293
perception
the process of interpreting sensory information
294
peripheral nervous system (PNS)
the nerves exiting the central sensory system that carry sensory and motor information to and from the rest of the body
295
person-centred therapy
a humanistic approach developed by Carl Rogers to help clients achieve congruence, or an alignment of the real and ideal selves
296
personality disorder
a disorder characterized by impairments on identity, in personality traits, and in establishment of empathy or intimacy
297
personality inventories
an objective test, often using numbered scales or multiple choice, used to assess personality
298
persuasion
a change in attitude in response to information provided by another person
299
phenotype
an observable characteristics
300
philosophy
the discipline that systematically examines basic concepts, including the source of knowledge
301
phonemes
a speech sound
302
placebo
an inactive substance or treatment that cannot be distinguished from a real, active substance or treatment
303
pons
a part of the brainstem between the medulla and the midbrain
| deals with sleep (if cut, fall into coma)
304
population
the entire group from which a sample is taken
305
positive psychology
an approach to psychology that emphasizes normal behaviour and human strengths
306
positive punishment
a consequence that eliminates of reduces the frequency of a behaviour by applying an aversive stimulus
307
post-conventional morality
Kohlberg's stage at which moral choices are made according to personal standards and reason
ages 12+
308
post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD)
a disorder caused by the experience of trauma, which leads to flashbacks, dreams, hyper-vigilance, and avoidance of stimuli associated with the traumatic event
309
pre-conventional morality
Kohlberg's stage at which moral choices are made according to expectations of reward/punishment
ages 0 to 6
310
prefrontal cortex
the most forward part of the frontal lobe of the cerebral cortex
311
prejudice
a prejudgment, usually negative, of another person on the basis of membership in a group
312
pre-operational stage
Piaget's stage of development
characterized by use of symbols, egocentrism, and limits on the ability to reason logically
ages 2 to 6
313
priming
a change in a response to a stimulus as a result of exposure to previous stimulus
314
problem-focused coping
a response to stress designed to address specific problems by finding solutions
315
procedural memory
a non-declarative or implicit memory for how to carry out skilled movement
316
prototype
a representation of a category formed by averaging all members of the category
317
psychiatrist
a medical doctor who specializes in psychiatry and can use medical procedures, such as prescribing medication, to treat psychological disorders
318
psychoactive drug
any drug with the capability of altering a person's state of consciousness
319
psychoanalysis
Freud's treatment approach based on his psychodynamic theory
320
psychodynamic
a theory put forward by Freud in which psychic energy moves among the compartments of the personality; id, ego, and superego
iceberg theory
321
psychology
the scientific study of behaviour, mental processes, and brain function
322
psychophysics
the study of relationships between the physical qualities of stimuli and the subjective responses they produce
323
psychosurgery
the attempt to improve symptoms of psychological disorders through operating on the brain
324
psychotherapy
a treatment designed to improve symptoms of psychological disorders through conversation between the therapist and the patient
325
puberty
a period of physical changes leading to sexual maturity in adolescences
326
publication bias
the possibility that published studies are not representative of all work done on a particular study done
327
punishment
a consequence the eliminates or reduces the frequency of a behaviour
328
pupil
an opening in the eye formed by the iris
329
random assignment
procedure in which a single participant has an equal chance of being placed in any group in an experiment
330
rapid-eye movement (REM) sleep
the component of sleep characterized by brain waves resembling waking accompanied by rapid motion of the eyes, muscular paralysis, and sympathetic nervous system activation
331
receptors
a special channel in the membrane of a neurone that interacts with neurotransmitters released by other neurones
332
recessive
a feature of an allele that produces only a phenotype if homozygous
333
reciprocal altruism
help that is provided for another person when the other person is expected to return the favour in the future
334
reciprocal determinism
a social-cognitive learning theory of personality that features the mutual influence of the person and that of the situation on each other
335
recognition heuristic
a rule of thumb in which a higher vale is placed on the more easily recognized alternative
336
reconstruction
rebuilding a memory out of stored elements
337
reflex
an inevitable, involuntary response to stimuli
338
rehearsal
repetition of information
339
relatedness
the probability that two people share the same allele from a common ancestor
340
reliability
the consistency of a measure, including test-retest, interrater, intermethod, and internal consistency
341
replication
repeating an experiment and producing the same results
342
representative heuristic
a rule of thumb in which similar to a prototype are believed to be more likely than stimuli that are dissimilar to a prototype
343
resilience
the ability to adapt to life's challenges in positive ways
344
resistance
the second stage of the general adaptation syndrome (GAS), characterized by coping with ongoing stress
345
resting potential
the measure of the electrical charge across a neural membrane when the neurone is not processing information
346
restless leg syndrome (RLS)
a disorder characterized by the involuntary movement of an extremity, usually one leg
347
reticular formation
a collection of structures located among the midline of the brainstem that participates in mood, arousal, and sleep
348
retina
layers of visual processing cells in the back of the eye
349
retinal disparity
the difference between the images projected onto each eye
350
retrieval
the recovery of stored information
351
reuptake
a process in which excess molecules of neurotransmitters in the synaptic gap are returned to the axon terminal from which they were released
352
rods
a photoreceptor specialized to detect dim light
353
sample
a subset of a population being studied
354
satiety
a sense of feeling full and not requiring further food
355
schachter-singer two-factor theory
a theory of emotion in which general arousal leads to assessment, which leads to subjective feelings
356
schema
a set of expectations about objects and situations
357
schizophrenia
a disorder characterized by hallucinations, delusions, disorganized thought and speech, disorders of movement, restricted affect, and asociality
358
secondary sex characteristics
physical changes occurring at puberty associated with sexual maturity
359
secure attachment
a pattern of infant-caregiver bonding in which children explore confidently and return to the parent or caregiver for reassurance
360
seizures
an abnormal level of brain activation with sudden onset
361
self
patterns of thought, feelings, and actions that we perceive in our own minds
362
self-actualization
a state of having fulfilled your potential
363
self-awareness
the special understanding of the self as distinct from other stimuli
364
self-concept
people's description of their own characteristics
365
self-esteem
a judgment of the value of the self
366
self-schemas
a cognitive organization that helps us think about the self and process self-relevant information
367
self-serving bias
attributing success to dispositional factors while attributing failure to situational factors
368
semantic knowledge
a general knowledge memory
369
sensation
the process of detecting environmental stimuli or stimuli arising from the body
370
sensitization
an increased reaction to many stimuli following exposure to one strong stimulus
371
sensorimotor stage
piaget's theory of development
characterized by active exploration of the environment
ages 0 to 2
372
sensory adaptation
the tendency to pay less attention to a non-changing source of stimulation
373
sensory memory
the first stage of the atkinson-shiffrin model that holds large amounts of incoming data for brief amounts of time
374
set points
a value that is defended to maintain homeostasis
375
sexual orientation
a stable pattern of attraction to members of a particular sex
376
sexual selection
the development of traits that help an individual compete for mates
377
short term memory
the second stage of the atkinson-shiffrin model that holds small amount of information for a limited time
378
signal detection
the analysis of sensory and decision-making processes in the detection of faint, uncertain stimuli
379
situational attribution
a judgment assigning the cause of a person's behaviour to the environment
380
sleep apnea
a sleep disorder in which the person stops breathing while asleep
381
sleep terrors
a sleep disorder occurring in non-REM sleep in which the sleep wakes suddenly in great distress but without experiencing the imagery of a nightmare
382
social anxiety disorder
a disorder characterized by an unrealistic fear of being scrutinized and criticized by others
383
social facilitation
a situation in which the presence of other people changes performance
384
social loafing
reduced motivation and effort shown by individuals working in a group
385
social norms
usually unwritten or unspoken rules for behaviour in social settings
386
social-cognitive learning theories
a theory of personality that features cognition and learning, especially from the social environment, as important sources of individual differences in personality
387
somatic nervous system
the part of the peripheral nervous system that brings sensory information to the central nervous system and transmits commands to the muscles
voluntary movements
388
somatosensation
the body senses, including body position, touch, skin temperature, and pain
389
somatovisceral afference model of emotion (SAME)
a model of emotion in which a range of physical sensations from precise to general requires varying degrees of cognitive processing prior to subjective feelings
390
specific phobias
fears of objects other than those associated with agoraphobia or social anxiety disorder
391
spinal cord
a long cylinder of neural tissue extending from the medulla of the brain down to the middle of the back; part of the central nervous system
392
spontaneous recovery
during extinction training, the reappearance of conditioned responses after periods of rest
393
spreading activation model
a connectionist theory proposing that people organize general knowledge based on their individual experiences
394
standard deviation
a measure of how tightly clustered around the mean a group scores are
395
statistical significance
a standard for deciding whether an observed result is because of chance
396
stereotype
a simplified set of traits associated with membership in a group of category
397
stimulant
any drug that increases the activity of the nervous system
398
storage
the retention of information
399
stress
an unpleasant emotional state that results from the perception of danger
400
stressor
a stimulus that serves as a source of stress
401
structuralism
an approach in which the mind is broken into the smallest elements of mental experience
402
sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS)
a sleep disorder in which an otherwise healthy infant dies while asleep
403
superego
the component of Freud's personality theory that internalizes society's rules for right and wrong, or the conscience
404
survey
a descriptive method in which participants are asked the same question
405
sympathetic adrenal-medullary (SAM) system
a circuit that responds to perceived stressors by initiating the release of epinephrine and norepinephrine into the blood stream
406
sympathetic nervous system
the division of the autonomic nervous system that coordinates arousal
407
systematic desensitization
a type of counterconditioning in which people relax while being exposed to stimuli that elicit fear
408
tardive dyskinesia
a movement syndrome that results from the use of medications used to treat symptoms of schizophrenia
409
taste buds
a structure found in papillae that contain taste receptor cells
410
temperament
a child's pattern of mood, activity, or emotional responsiveness linked to later personality
411
temporal lobe
location of the primary auditory cortex
412
tend and befriend
an alternative to fight or flight as a response to stressors
| characterized by soothing and building social connections, which is possibly more characteristic of females
413
teratogen
a chemical agent that can harm a forming infant
414
testosterone
a male hormone
415
thalamus
a subcortical structure involved with to processing of sensory information, states of arousal, and learning and memory
416
the central nervous system (CNS)
the brain and spinal cord
417
theory of mind
the understanding that others have thoughts that are different from one's own
418
theta waves
a waveform that is characteristic of lighter stages of non-REM sleep
419
third variable
a variable that is responsible for a correlation observed between two other variables of interest
420
token economy
an application of operant conditioning in which tokens that can be exchanged for other reinforcers are used to increase the frequency of desirable behaviours
421
tolerance
the need to administer greater quantities of a drug to achieve the same subjective effect
422
top-down processing
a perceptual process in which memory and other cognitive processes are required for interpreting incoming sensory information
423
trait
a stable personality characteristic
424
transduction
the translation of incoming sensory information into neural signals
425
transference
a psychoanalytic technique in which the therapist uses the responses of the patient to the therapist to understand the patient's approach to authority figures in general
426
trichromatic theory
a theory of colour based on the existence of different types of cones for the detection of short, medium, and long wavelengths
427
type A personality
a competitive, workaholic, and in some cases hostile personality tyoe
428
type B personality
a mellow, laidback personality type
429
unconditioned response (UCR)
a response to an unconditioned stimulus that requires no previous experience
430
unconditioned stimulus (UCS)
a stimulus that elicits a response without prior experience
431
unconscious mind
the part of mental activity that cannot be voluntarily retrieved
432
validity
a quality of a measure that leads to correct conclusions
433
variable interval (VI) schedule
a schedule of reinforcement in which the first response following a varying period is reinforced
434
variable ratio (VR) schedule
a schedule of reinforcement in which reinforcement occurs following some variable number of behaviours
435
vegetative state
an abnormal state following brain injury featuring wakefulness without consciousness
436
vestibular system
the system of the inner ear that provides information about body position and movement
437
waking
a normal state of consciousness characterized by alertness and awareness of external stimuli
438
withdrawal
physical responses to the removal of some habitually administered drugs
439
working memory
an extension of the concept of short-term memory that includes the active manipulation of multiple types of information simultaneously
440
yerkes-dodson law
a description of the relationships among task complexity, arousal, and performance
441
zygote
the term used to describe a developing organism immediately following conception
