Vocab list for AP test Flashcards
Gives the national government and its laws general precedence over states’ laws, but Supreme Court interpretations may affect when specific actions exceed this constitutional power
Supremacy Clause
Found that race-based majority-minority districts could be constitutionally challenged if race was the sole factor used in their creation
Shaw v. Reno
More precise when it includes: i. Accurate sampling methods, including calculating a margin of error ii. Neutral framing of questions (specific and unbiased wording of questions) iii. Accurate reporting (clear reporting and conclusions that can be supported by the data)
Polling methodology
A list of subjects or issues to which government officials will agree to consider as part of public policymaking
Policy agenda
Formal foreign policy power of the President
Commander in Chief
A major political party that generally aligns more closely to conservative ideological positions; R or GOP
Republican Party
Interactive technologies facilitating the creation and sharing of information through virtual networks; e.g., Facebook, Twitter, YouTube
Social media
A typical Senate procedure to bring bills to the floor for debate and vote
Unanimous consent
Approved on an annual basis for defense spending, education, and infrastructure; as entitlement costs grow, discretionary spending opportunities will decrease unless tax revenues increase, or the budget deficit increases
Discretionary spending
Eliminated poll taxes, a structural barrier to voting
Twenty-Fourth Amendment
A tactic to prolong debate and delay or prevent a vote on a bill
Filibuster
An independent agency which seeks to achieve maximum employment and price stability
Federal Reserve
Two-house legislature
Bicameral
Prioritizes hiring and promotion based on professionalism, specialization, and neutrality
Merit system
Takes place when media influence how citizens acquire political information, including news events, investigative journalism, election coverage, and political commentary
Agenda setting (media)
An essay by James Madison, the fifty-first of The Federalist Papers. It was published on February 6, 1788, under the pseudonym Publius, the name under which all The Federalist Papers were published.
Federalist 51
Consists of actions taken by the Federal Reserve (the Fed) to influence interest rates which affect broader economic conditions
Monetary policy
Include print media, radio, television, cable/satellite, and billboards
Traditional news media
A representative who will vote on issues based on their own knowledge and judgment
Trustee representative
Congressional legislation intended to limit bulk collection of telecommunication metadata on U.S. citizens by American intelligence agencies and end secret laws of FISA courts
USA Freedom Act
Individuals who opposed the creation of a stronger U.S. federal government and the ratification of the 1787 Constitution.
Anti-Federalist
Those not delegated or enumerated to the national government but are reserved to the states, as stated in the Tenth Amendment
Reserved powers
A political party or organization focused on a particular political ideology or social movement agenda
Ideological/social movements
A type of democracy founded on the principle of elected officials representing a group of people.
Representative democracy
A nonviolent social movement and campaign from 1954 to 1968 to abolish legalized racial segregation, discrimination, and disenfranchisement throughout the United States
Civil Rights Movement
Process of interaction and integration among people, companies, and governments worldwide; U.S. political culture has both influenced and been influenced by the values of other countries
Globalization
A filing by a House member to have a bill brought to the floor for debate, but rarely done
Discharge petition
An outgoing politician or group of politicians who continue to serve until the assumption of their elected successors
Lame duck
Ensures that funds are being used properly and regulations are being followed
Compliance monitoring
Rights that all people inherently possess that cannot be taken away.
Natural rights
A political ideology centered around citizenship in a state organized as a republic, where the people’s representatives make decisions.
Republicanism
Involves incumbency advantage, open and closed primaries, caucuses, party conventions, general elections, and the Electoral College
Presidential election
Cruel and unusual punishment; Supreme Court interpretations of the Eighth Amendment have applied to death penalty statutes
Eighth Amendment
An informal power to allow the president to manage the federal government and are implied by the president’s vested executive power or by power delegated by Congress
Executive order
Constitutionally established guarantees and freedoms that protect citizens, opinions, and property against arbitrary government interference
Civil liberties
An analysis of the court’s decision, written by the justices; the majority opinion is agreed upon by more than half of the justices
Opinion
A legal or Constitutional question the court considers in a case
Issue
Requires that government officials use methods that are not arbitrary when making and carrying out decisions affecting constitutionally protected rights; procedural due process protections are reinforced by key protections enshrined in other provisions of the Bill of Rights and key legal doctrines established by the Supreme Court
Procedural due process
The power of a court to hear a case that has already been heard and decided by a lower court
Appellate jurisdiction
The market determines prices, products, and services
Free enterprise
Extended the Sixth Amendment’s right to an attorney to felony defendants in state courts as a protection of procedural due process
Gideon v. Wainwright
Supreme Court has affirmed support for a heavy presumption against prior restraint even in cases involving national security
Prior restraint
Include individualism, equal opportunity, free enterprise, and rule of law
Core values
Additions and/or revisions of a bill done in congressional committee
Mark up
The regulatory commission responsible for enforcement of campaign finance laws in federal elections
Federal Elections Commission (FEC)
The people eligible to vote in an election
Electorate
Established presidential term limits and demonstrates concern about the expansion of presidential power
22nd Amendment
Legal authority delegated to the federal courts to rule on cases and controversies
Jurisdiction
Held that redistricting cases could be heard by federal courts, ruling that such cases did not raise “political questions” beyond judicial scrutiny
Baker v. Carr
An advisory body to the President made up of the heads of the 15 executive departments and the Vice President
Cabinet
The executive department responsible for government education programs, educational financial aid, and equity access policies in public education
Department of Education
A political party or organization focused on addressing a perceived injustice or disagreement with public policies, agendas, or current political, economic, or social circumstances and situations
Protest movement
National funding with almost no restrictions to the states on its use and is the least used form of funding
Revenue sharing
Collective opinion on a topic or issue or voting intention relevant to society
Public opinion
Individuals who benefit from the work of an interest group without providing financial support; interest groups may deal with this issue by providing selective benefits, goods, and services that are only available to members, to encourage more people to join
Free rider
The (unconstitutional) authority of the President to reject or veto particular provisions of a bill passed by Congress
Line item veto
National funding with minimal restrictions to the states on its use and is preferred by the states
Block grants
A recognized constitutionally protected right not explicitly named in the Constitution; interpreted by the Supreme Court to be granted by the Due Process clause in Griswold v. Connecticut
Right to privacy
Drawing an electoral district in which the majority of constituents are racial or ethnic minorities
Majority-minority districting
The court’s explanation of a holding
Reasoning
Benefits current officeholders possess over challengers
Incumbency advantage
A movement supporting the view that women should have the legal right to an elective abortion based on a recognized right to privacy
Pro-choice movement
The executive department responsible for public security, including anti-terrorism, border security, immigration and customs, cyber security, and disaster prevention and management
Department of Homeland Security
Process and outcomes in U.S. congressional elections are affected by incumbency advantage, open and closed primaries, caucuses, and general elections
Congressional election
The first constitution of the United States, outlining the functions of the national government after it declared independence from Britain.
Articles of Confederation
Focuses on the characteristics of the candidate rather than the party
Candidate-centered campaign
Redrawing of congressional districts by state legislatures based on congressional reapportionment
Redistricting
An act of vesting the legislative, executive, and judicial powers of government in separate bodies.
Separation of powers
Found that a prohibition against students wearing black armbands in protest violated the First Amendment’s freedom of speech protections
Tinker v. Des Moines
A committee formed in the House to expedite debate on bills
Committee of the Whole
The right to legal counsel, speedy and public trial, and an impartial jury
Sixth Amendment
Overturned Roe v. Wade, holding that the Constitution does not confer a right to abortion, leaving decisions about the regulation of abortion to legislatures
Dobbs v. Jackson Women’s Health Organization
An essay by James Madison arguing for the ratification of the United States Constitution, discussing the dangers of factionalism.
Federalist 10
A draft or proposed law in Congress
Bill
Ruled that political spending by corporations, associations, and labor unions is a form of protected speech under the First Amendment
Citizens United v. FEC
Such as Voter ID laws, variations in funding for polling places, types of voting allowed, and opportunities for registration, affecting the availability and ease of voting
Structural barriers
Favor fewer regulations in the marketplace; generally favor less national government involvement to address some social issues such as education and public health, with more responsibility for these issues left to state governments
Conservatism
An agency established to oversee and regulate a specific industry or sector and are delegated rulemaking authority; heads of commissions can only be removed for cause and insulated from presidential control; e.g., Federal Elections Commission (FEC), Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC), Federal Reserve
Independent regulatory agency / commission
Favor more governmental regulation of the marketplace; generally favor more national government involvement to address some social issues such as education and public health, with less responsibility for these issues left to state governments
Liberalism
The process by which individuals develop political beliefs, values, opinions, and behaviors; family, schools, peers, media, and social environments (including civic and religious organizations) contribute to the development of an individual’s political attitudes and values
Political socialization
An effort to ban soft money and reduce attack ads with the “Stand by Your Ad” provision
Bipartisan Campaign Reform Act of 2002
A small, organized, dissenting group within a larger one, especially in politics.
Faction
The ability of Congress to check the bureaucracy by appropriating or withholding funds
Power of the purse
The principle that the authority of the government is created and sustained by the consent of its people, through their elected representatives.
Popular sovereignty
Language that harms the reputation of another
Defamation
An agency established outside the Executive Office of the President or executive departments designed for managerial and administrative functions as enacted by congressional legislation; e.g., Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA), Central Intelligence Agency (CIA)
Executive agency
Redrawing of congressional districts with the intent to create undue advantage for a political party
Gerrymandering
The relevant events of a case that occurred before courts became involved
Facts
Redistribution of congressional seats to the several states based on the U.S. Census held every 10 years
Reapportionment
National funding that is restricted to specific categories of expenditures, is preferred by the national government, and is the most commonly used form of funding
Categorical grants
Counterbalancing influences by which an organization or system is regulated, ensuring that political power is not concentrated in the hands of individuals or groups.
Checks and balances
Uses a combination of trustee and delegate role conceptions
Politico representative
Prohibits racial discrimination in voting
Voting Rights Act of 1965
An agreement during the Constitutional Convention that large and small states reached, which in part defined the legislative structure and representation that each state would have under the United States Constitution.
Great (Connecticut) Compromise
Consists of the first ten Amendments to the Constitution, which enumerate the liberties and rights of individuals, and is specifically designed to protect individual liberties and rights; application of the Bill of Rights is continuously interpreted by the courts
Bill of Rights
Establishes rules for debate on a bill in the House
Rules Committee
Informal power of the President for agenda setting that uses the media to influence public views about which policies are the most important
Bully pulpit
Regulations that impose restrictions such as limits on the time of day an event can be held, limits on where an event can be held, and limits on the noise levels at an event
Time, place, manner
A non-profit organization focused on the issues affecting those above 50 years of age; lobbies in favor of entitlement programs, such as Social Security and Medicare
AARP
Voting process to elect candidates where only voters registered in a given party can vote in their party’s primary election
Open primary
Incorporation of third-party agendas into major party platforms can serve as a barrier to third-party success
Third party
An informal power of the President to inform Congress and the public of the president’s interpretation of laws passed by Congress and signed by the president
Signing statement
Determined compelling Amish students to attend school past the eighth grade violates the Free Exercise Clause of the First Amendment
Wisconsin v. Yoder
A situation in which no congressional action on legislation can be taken due to a lack of consensus
Gridlock
A political system where there is more than one center of power, and the state allows multiple groups to coexist and compete for influence.
Pluralist democracy
A system of government by the whole population or all the eligible members of a state, typically through elected representatives.
Democracy
Granted citizenship to all persons born or naturalized in the U.S., including formerly enslaved people
Fourteenth Amendment
Generated by Congress to address both mandatory and discretionary spending
Federal budget
Asserts that judicial review allows the courts to overturn current Constitutional and case precedent or invalidate legislative or executive acts
Judicial activism
Due process clause in the Fifth Amendment applies to the national government
Fifth Amendment
The executive department responsible for providing and managing healthcare and financial benefits for military veterans
Department of Veterans Affairs
The process of taking something away or off from the position occupied.
Removal (impeachment process)
Used by the Supreme Court to examine whether government laws and actions are arbitrary infringements of individual rights
Substantive due process
Government power to make law and an individual’s right to religious freedom through the Establishment Clause and Free Exercise Clause; freedom of speech; freedom of the press
First Amendment
Asserts that judicial review should be constrained to decisions that adhere to current Constitutional and case precedent
Judicial restraint
Lowered the voting age to 18
Twenty-Sixth Amendment
Media coverage focused more on popularity and non-qualification factors, using polling results to convey popular trust levels in government
“Horse race” journalism
The gathering that drafted the Constitution of the United States in 1787; all states were invited to send delegates.
Constitutional Convention
Benefits and drawbacks include dependence on professional consultants, rising campaign costs and intensive fundraising efforts, duration of election cycles, and impact of and reliance on social media
Modern campaign
States that the government may not infringe on a person’s right to life, liberty, or property without due process of law
Due process
Requires accused persons to be informed of some procedural protections found in the Fifth and Sixth Amendments prior to interrogation
Miranda rule
A regular election where all registered voters may vote for candidates for political office
General election
Any government-provided or government-managed benefit or service to which some or all individuals are entitled
Entitlements
Power delegated to a branch of government explicitly listed in the U.S. Constitution
Formal power
Prohibits discrimination in public places, provides for the integration of schools and other public facilities, and makes employment discrimination illegal
Civil Rights Act of 1964
Shared between both levels of government such as the power to collect taxes, the power to make and enforce laws and the power to build roads
Concurrent powers
Formal power of the President to check Congress, but vetoes can be overridden with a 2/3 vote of both houses of Congress
Veto
Congressional authority to ensure legislation is implemented as intended, including i. review, monitoring, and supervision of bureaucratic agencies ii. Investigation and committee hearings of bureaucratic activity iii. Power of the purse; serves as a check of executive authorization
Oversight
Comprises the offices and agencies that support the work and agenda of the President; consists of the White House Office (headed by the Chief of Staff), National Security Council, and Office of Management and Budget (OMB)
Executive Office of the President
Experiences shared by people of a common age
Generational effects
Includes financial contributions from individuals, political action committees, and political parties
Campaign finance
Political action committees that may raise unlimited amounts of money from interest groups but cannot coordinate directly with candidates and political parties
SuperPACs
Right to bear arms
Second Amendment
Electoral system where subgroups of an electorate are reflected proportionally in a legislative body
Proportional system
Written communication of defamation
Libel
Determined Congress exceeded its power under the Commerce Clause by making possession of a gun in a school zone a federal crime
United States v. Lopez
Congressional legislation enacted in the wake of 9/11 designed to expand surveillance abilities of law enforcement, facilitate interagency communication, and increase penalties of acts of terrorism
Patriot Act
An implicit agreement among members of a society to cooperate for social benefits, such as sacrificing some individual freedom for state protection.
Social contract
Foundation for powers of the judicial branch; life tenure for justices allows the court to function independent of the current political climate
Article III
Political party or organization focused on lobbying on a specific policy area or idea
Single-issue group
An anti-abortion movement based on moral and religious grounds supporting legal restrictions and prohibitions on abortions with many believing life begins at conception
Pro-life movement
Held the Second Amendment right to keep and bear arms for self-defense is applicable to the states
McDonald v. Chicago
Required by law for entitlement programs such as Social Security, Medicare, and Medicaid
Mandatory spending
The official way to confirm something, usually by vote. It is the formal validation of a proposed law.
Ratification
Designed to represent the people; Debate in the House, which has 435 members, is more formal than in the Senate; all House members are elected every two years; All revenue bills must originate in the House. Rules for debate in the House on a bill are established by the Rules Committee. The House can form a Committee of the Whole in order to expedite debate on bills. An individual representative in the House can file a discharge petition to have a bill brought to the floor for debate, but it is rarely done
House
Designed to represent states equally; has 100 members and debate is less formal than in the House; One-third of the Senate is elected every two years, creating a continuous legislative body; bills are typically brought to the floor by unanimous consent, but a Senator may request a hold on a bill to prevent it from getting to the floor for a vote. During debate, a Senator can use the filibuster or make a motion for cloture
Senate
Its democratic ideals, principles, and core values
United States political culture
One of the principal units of the executive branch and administrative arms of the President; headed by a secretary appointed by the President and confirmed by the Senate and serve at the pleasure of the President (can be removed for cause); e.g., Department of Homeland Security, Department of Transportation, Department of Veterans Affairs, Department of Education
Executive department
Bias in media coverage selection and event storytelling; examples include MSNBC’s liberal slant and FoxNews’ conservative slant
Media bias
Collecting data on why people voted the way they did
Exit poll
The regulatory commission responsible for enforcement of laws to protect financial markets, investors, and capital formation
Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC)
Closed meetings of party members to select candidates or decide policy
Caucus
Bolstered freedom of the press, establishing a “heavy presumption against prior restraint” even in national security cases
New York Times v. United States
The Supreme Court’s power to determine the constitutionality of a congressional law, executive action, or state law or state court decision
Judicial review
When one party controls the presidency and the other party controls at least one of the chambers of Congress
Divided government
Bureaucratic jobs are politically appointed
Patronage
Creating baseline views of a candidate
Benchmark poll
Allows unwarned interrogation to stand as direct evidence in court
Public safety exception
The Supreme Court held that the application of substantive due process further extended the privacy right to abortion
Roe v. Wade
Doctrine that imposed limitations on state regulation of civil liberties by extending select protections of the Bill of Rights to the states through the due process clause of the Fourteenth Amendment
Selective incorporation
A nonviolent social movement and campaign during the 1960s and 1970s to address gender equality and discrimination with a focus on equal employment and pay, reproductive rights, and discrimination in employment and education
Women’s Rights Movement
When political attitudes move toward ideological extremes
Polarization
An election where the candidate with a majority or plurality of all votes in the nation
Popular vote
Voting process to elect candidates by allowing voters of any party affiliation to vote in one party’s primary election
Closed primary
A filing by a Senator to prevent a bill from getting to the floor for a vote
Hold
Due Process Clause and Equal Protection Clause as applied to the states
Fourteenth Amendment
The argument for how its independence checks the power of other branches; life tenure for justices allows the court to function independent of the current political climate
Federalist 78
Every person, even those in power, must follow and is accountable to the same laws that govern all
Rule of law
Factors influencing voter choice include party identification, candidate characteristics, contemporary issues, and demographic characteristics
Voter choice
Refers to individuals who base their decisions on what is perceived to be in their best interest
Rational choice theory
An important check on appointment powers but there can be a potential for conflict based on who is chosen by the president for appointments, including: i. Cabinet members ii. Ambassadors iii. Some positions within the Executive Office of the President iv. Supreme Court Justices, Court of Appeals judges, and District Court judges, but the president’s longest lasting influence lies in life-tenured judicial appointments
Senate confirmation
Oral communication of slander
Slander
States that individuals have protected rights beyond those listed in the first eight amendments; some argue it provides support for the existence of unenumerated rights
Ninth Amendment
A compromise reached among state delegates during the 1787 United States Constitutional Convention regarding the counting of slaves for taxation and representation purposes.
3/5ths Compromise
The belief that an individual’s participation in the political process will make a difference
Political efficacy
The Supreme Court interpreted the due process clause to protect the right of privacy from government infringement
Griswold v. Connecticut
Measuring public opinion on various issues
Opinion poll
Elected by a majority of House members and presides over the legislative work in the House
Speaker of the House
A set of political ideas and beliefs on how society should function in achieving and prioritizing goals and methods; influenced by generational effects and life cycle effects, political events, political socialization
Political ideology
Consists of actions taken by Congress and the president to influence economic conditions and includes Keynesian and supply-side positions
Fiscal policy
Alliances of congressional committees, bureaucratic agencies, and interest groups that are prominent in specific policy areas
Iron triangle
Informal power of the President to secure congressional action
Bargaining and persuasion
Channels that allow individuals to communicate their preferences to policymakers, including political parties, interest groups, elections, and media
Linkage institutions
An agency established to provide a market-oriented public service, owned by the federal government and operated as a private business; e.g., United States Postal Service, AMTRAK, Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation (FDIC)
Government corporation
A government’s power cannot be absolute; it is constrained by the principles of separation of powers, checks and balances, federalism, and republicanism.
Limited government
Formal power of the President to check Congress, and cannot be overridden with a 2/3 vote of both houses of Congress
Pocket veto
The last of the Bill of Rights to define the balance of power between the federal government and the states; establishes reserved powers of the states
Tenth Amendment
The court’s response to the issue being considered
Holding
Refers to individuals who decide whether the party or candidate in power should be reelected based on the recent past
Retrospective voting
Gives Congress the power to make laws related to carrying out its enumerated powers, but Supreme Court interpretations can influence the extent of these powers
Necessary & Proper clause / Elastic clause
Due Process Clause and Equal Protection Clause as applied to the states; granted citizenship to all persons born or naturalized in the U.S., including formerly enslaved people
Fourteenth Amendment
Granted African American men the right to vote
Fifteenth Amendment
States can choose how they allocate their electors; most states use a winner-take-all system
Electoral College
Established the supremacy of the U.S. Constitution and federal laws over state laws, concerning a national bank and state taxes
McCulloch v. Maryland
A set of facilities, structures, and utilities developed, owned, operated, and maintained by the federal, state, and/or municipal government; includes highways, roads, railroads, bridges, ports, airports, public transportation, water and sewage systems, electrical grids, and broadband systems
Infrastructure
Favor little or no regulation of the marketplace beyond the protection of property rights and voluntary trade; generally favor little national or state government involvement except when national or state government is protecting private property or individual liberty
Libertarianism
Media whose content is influenced by consumer actions and needs
Consumer-driven media outlet
A procedure to end a debate
Cloture
A major political party that generally aligns more closely to liberal ideological positions; D or DEM
Democratic Party
Powers authorized by a legal document (from the Constitution) which, while not stated, seem implied by powers expressly stated.
Implied powers
Anti-Federalist papers emphasizing the benefits of a small, decentralized republic and warning against the dangers of a large, centralized government.
Brutus 1
May represent very specific or more general interests, and can educate voters and office holders, conduct lobbying, draft legislation, and mobilize membership to apply pressure on and work with legislators and government agencies; may also file amicus curiae briefs; exert influence by working within party coalitions and through iron triangles and issue networks; may have large memberships and are able to mobilize those members, and possess access to large financial reserves; some may have more direct and more frequent access to important people in the policy process
Interest group
A document declaring the independence of the colonies from England, emphasizing natural rights and popular sovereignty.
Declaration of Independence
A federal government-subsidized healthcare program for qualified elderly Americans
Medicare
When members of Congress vote based on their political party affiliation
Partisan voting
A principle or rule established in a previous legal case relevant to a court when deciding subsequent cases
Precedent
Informal foreign policy power of the President
Executive agreement
A method of both houses by which committee members gather and analyze information, evidence, and testimony in deliberation over a bill prior to full chamber debate and vote
Committee hearing
Temporary coalitions that form to promote a common issue or agenda
Issue network
The power of a court to hear a case for the first time
Original jurisdiction
A representative who sees themselves as an agent of those who elected them and will vote on issues based on the interests of their constituents
Delegate representative
A charge of misconduct made against the holder of a public office.
Impeachment
Formal foreign policy of the President
Treaty
A set of requirements issued by a federal bureaucratic agency to implement congressional laws
Regulation
Political committees organized for raising and spending money to elect and defeat candidates, regulated by the FEC in federal elections
Political Action Committees (PACs)
The fundamental law of the U.S. federal system of government and a landmark document of the Western world, embodying a social contract and establishing a system of limited government.
U.S. Constitution
The process by which the Constitution, the nation’s frame of government, may be altered.
Article V / Amendment process
A macroeconomic theory based on how aggregate demand influences economic output and inflation; effects of aggregative demand on markets can be mitigated by fiscal and monetary policies to stabilize the economy
Keynesian theory
Protect individuals from discrimination based on characteristics such as race, national origin, religion, and sex; these rights are guaranteed to all persons under the due process and equal protection clauses of the U.S. Constitution, as well as acts of Congress
Civil rights
A federal government-subsidized healthcare program for qualified low-income households
Medicaid
The legal doctrine under which courts follow legal precedents when deciding cases with similar facts
Stare decisis
Offers justification for a single executive by arguing a strong executive is “essential to the protection of the country against foreign attacks, to the steady administration of the laws, to the protection of property, and to the security of liberty.”
Federalist 70
Declared race-based school segregation violates the Equal Protection Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment
Brown v. Board of Education
Refers to individuals who vote for all of the candidates from one political party on a ballot
Split-ticket voting
An interest or advocacy group consisting of members of a common career field
Professional organization
Formal power of the President that is a nationally broadcast message for agenda setting that uses the media to influence public views about which policies are the most important
State of the Union
Sharp changes in party ideology, leadership, bases of power, and political system rules
Critical elections / Realignments
Conduct hearings and debate and mark up bills with revisions and additions; leadership in committees is determined by the majority political party; a majority of bills do not pass committees to floor debate and vote
Committee
The formal list of policies Congress is considering at any given time; policy conflicts with the congressional agenda can lead the president to use executive orders and directives to the bureaucracy to address the president’s own agenda items
Congressional agenda
Policies intended to address workplace and educational disparities related to race, ethnic origin, gender, disability, and age; Supreme Court debate has focused on whether affirmative action is protected by the equal protection clause of the Fourteenth Amendment to the Constitution
Affirmative Action
A body of electors established by the United States Constitution, which forms every four years for the sole purpose of electing the president and vice president of the United States.
Electoral College
Granted women the right to vote
Nineteenth Amendment
A macroeconomic theory focused on increasing aggregate supply; fostered by lowering taxes, deregulation, and free trade
Supply-side theory
A written document submitted as a “friend of the court” to provide additional information for justices to consider when reviewing a case
Amicus curiae brief
The executive department responsible for managing and administering public transportation and infrastructure projects
Department of Transportation
Political and social rights for lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender individuals; gains have been made for same-sex activities and behaviors, same-sex marriage, and discrimination in employment; opposition to transgender and gender identity continues
LGBTQ rights
Declared that race-based school segregation violates the Fourteenth Amendment’s equal protection clause; overturned Plessy v. Ferguson
Brown v. Board of Education
Each person has the ability to shape their life and destiny through the choices they make
Individualism
Functions and impact on the electorate and government include voter mobilization, party platforms, candidate recruitment, campaign management, and the committee and party leadership systems in legislatures
Political party
Speech that strongly offends the prevalent morality of the time and society
Obscenity
Prohibits sex discrimination in any education program or activity receiving federal financial assistance
Title IX of the Education Amendments Act of 1972
The outcome of a case, including a discussion of the facts, issue, holding, and reasoning
Decision
Powers not listed in the U.S. Constitution but implied or granted
Informal power
Refers to individuals who vote based on predictions of how a party or candidate will perform in the future
Prospective voting
An armed uprising in Massachusetts (mostly in and around Springfield) during 1786 and 1787, which highlighted the weaknesses of the Articles of Confederation.
Shays’s Rebellion
Federal bureaucratic agencies utilize their discretion to create and enforce regulations
Rule-making authority
Meets when a bill passed by both chambers on the same topic has variation in its wording and attempt to reconcile those differences
Conference committee
Specific powers granted to Congress by the United States Constitution.
Enumerated powers
A letter by Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. stating people have a moral responsibility to break unjust laws and take direct action instead of waiting for social and racial justice through the court system; “injustice anywhere is a threat to justice everywhere”
Letter from Birmingham Jail
Funding for a local project in a larger appropriation bill
Pork barrel
Ruled school sponsorship of religious activities violates the Establishment Clause of the First Amendment
Engel v. Vitale
State laws and Supreme Court decisions restricting African American access to the same restaurants, hotels, schools, etc., as the majority white population
Separate but equal doctrine
Recognized constitutionally protected rights that are not explicitly listed in the Bill of Rights; include the right to privacy
Unenumerated rights
The President uses their formal and informal powers to influence public policy and public opinion in pursuit of their presidential agenda
Agenda setting
Speech can be limited when it is shown to present a danger to public safety
Clear and present danger
Formal set of principal goals of a political party to appeal to the public
Party platform
A political convention where delegates of a political party come from across the nation to nominate their party candidates and decide on a party platform
Party convention
Changed the practice for electing Senators from a vote by state legislatures to a direct vote by the people
Seventeenth Amendment
Delegated by Congress to bureaucratic agencies to interpret and implement policies
Discretionary power
A model of democracy that emphasizes broad participation of constituents in the direction and operation of political systems.
Participatory democracy
Supporters of the proposed Constitution, who favored a strong federal government.
Federalist
A political system in which a small number of people, often wealthy and influential, control decision-making.
Elite democracy
All people are given an equal chance to compete
Equal opportunity
Composed of departments, agencies, commissions, and government corporations that implement policy by: i. Writing and enforcing regulations ii. Issuing fines iii. Testifying before Congress iv. Forming iron triangles v. Creating issue networks; discretionary power as delegated by Congress to interpret and implement policies; through their rulemaking authority, federal bureaucratic agencies utilize their discretion to create and enforce regulations
Federal bureaucracy
Advantages the two-party system in the U.S. by granting victory to the candidate with the most votes, serving as a barrier to third-party success
Winner-take-all system
A mixed or compound mode of government that combines a general government (the central or ‘federal’ government) with regional governments (provincial, state, cantonal, territorial or other sub-unit governments) in a single political system.
Federalism
(Combining several pieces of legislation into one bill to secure enough votes for passage) subject to clarification
Logrolling
Established the principle of judicial review, empowering the Supreme Court to declare acts of Congress and the executive branch unconstitutional
Marbury v. Madison
Differences in state-controlled elections including variations in polling hours, Voter ID laws, funding for polling places, types of voting allowed, and variations in voter registration laws
Voter turnout
Act of lawfully attempting to influence the actions, policies, or decisions of public policymakers
Lobbying
Nonverbal action that communicates an idea or belief
Symbolic speech
Following how views of a candidate change during a campaign
Tracking poll
Prohibits the establishment of an official religion by the government
Establishment clause
Established that speech creating a “clear and present danger” is not protected by the First Amendment
Schenck v. United States
Requirements by the national government of the states
Mandates
The executive agency responsible for environmental-related programs and policies to protect human health and safeguard natural environments
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)
Gives the national government the power to regulate interstate commerce, but Supreme Court interpretations can influence the extent of this power
Commerce clause
A social insurance program funded by a payroll tax on current employers and employees to be redistributed to qualifying individuals for retirement, disability, or survivor benefits
Social Security
The right to be free from unreasonable searches and seizures
Fourth Amendment
Stipulates that evidence illegally seized by law enforcement officers in violation of the suspect’s Fourth Amendment rights (including the right to be free from unreasonable searches and seizures) cannot be used against that suspect in criminal prosecution
Exclusionary rule
A feminist organization which lobbies for gender equality
National Organization of Women (NOW)
Congressional authority to ensure legislation is implemented as intended, including i. review, monitoring, and supervision of bureaucratic agencies ii. Investigation and committee hearings of bureaucratic activity iii. Power of the purse; serves as a check of executive authorization
Oversight
A form of journalism where reporters deeply investigate a topic, particularly involving the government
Investigative journalism
Guarantees freedom of conscience and prohibits the government from interfering in religious belief
Free exercise clause
A human research survey of public opinion using statistical information to randomly select representative respondents and obtain timely results through unbiased questioning
Scientific poll
Experiences a person encounters during different life stages
Life cycle effects
