Vocab Ch 2 Flashcards
Self-report methods
Methods of data collection in which people are asked to provide about themselves, such as in survey questionnaires
Research
A scientific process that involves the careful collection, analysis, and interpretation of data
Data
A collection of measurements gathered during the research process.
Scientific Method
A systematic and dynamic procedure of observing and measuring phenomena, used to achieve the goals of description, prediction, control, and explanation; it involves an interaction between research, theories, and hypothesis
Theory
A model of interconnected ideas or concepts that explains what is observed and makes predictions about future events. Theories are based on evidence.
Hypothesis
A specific, testable prediction, narrower than the theory it is based on.
Replication
Repetition of a research study to confirm or contradict the results.
Variable
Something in the world that can vary and that researchers can manipulate (change), measure (evaluate, or both.
Case study
A descriptive research method that involves the intensive examination of an unusual person or organization.
Participant observation
A type of descriptive study in which the researcher is involved I the situation
Naturalistic observation
A type of descriptive study which the researcher is a passive observer, making no attempt to change or alter ongoing behavior
Reactivity
The phenomenon that occurs when knowledge that one is being observed alters the behavior being observed
Science has four primary goals
Description
Prediction
Control
Explanation
Hawthorn effect
Changes in behavior that occur when people know that others are observing them.
Types of research methods
Descriptive: describe what is occurring
Correlational: rest the relationship between factors
Experimental methods: investigate what causes an outcome
Types of Descriptive research methods
Observational studies
Self-reports
Case studies
Observer bias
Systematic errors in observation that occur because of an observer’s expectations.
Experimenter expectancy effect
Actual change in the behavior of the people or nonhuman animals being observed that is due to the expectations of the observer
Correlational studies
A research method that describes and predicts how variables are naturally related in the real world, without any attempt by the researcher to alter them or assign causation between them
Scatterplot
A graphical depiction of the relationship between two variables
Positive correlation
A relationship between two variables in which both variables either increase or decrease together
Negative correlation
A relational between two variables in which one variable increases when the other decreases
Zero correlation
A relationship between two variables in which one variable is not predictably related to the other
Directionality problem
A problem encountered in correlational studies; the researchers find a relationship between two variables , but they cannot determine which variable may have causes changes in the other variable
Third variable problem
A problem thy occurs when the researcher cannot directly manipulate variables; as a result, the researcher cannot be confident that another, unmeasured variable is not the actual cause of differences in the variables of interest.
Experiment
A research method that tests causal hypotheses my manipulating and measuring variables
Independent variable
The variable that gets manipulated in a research study
Dependent variable
The variable that gets measured in a research study
Operational definition
A definition that qualifies (describes) and quantifies (measures) a variable so the variable can be understood objectively
Experimental group
The participants in an experiment who receive the treatment
Control group
The participants in an experiment who receive no intervention or who receive an intervention that is unrelated to the independent variable being investigated
Confound
Anything that affects a dependent variable and that may unintentionally vary between the experimental conditions of the study
Population
Everyone in the group the experimenter is interested in
Sample
A subset of a population
Random assignment
Placing research participants in the conditions of an experiment in such a way that each participant has an equal chance of being assigned to any level of the independent variable.
Selection bias
In an experiment, unintended differences between the participants in different groups; it could be caused by nonrandom assignments to groups.
Culturally sensitive research
Studies that take into account the role that culture plays in determining thoughts, feelings, and actions
Institutional review boards (IRB)
Groups of people responsible for reviewing proposed research to ensure that it meets the accepted standards of science and provides for the physical and emotional well-being of research participants
Construct validity
The extent to which variables measure what they are supposed to measure
External validity
The degree to which the findings of a study can be generalized to other people, settings, or situations.
Internal validity
The degree to which the effects observed in an experiment are due to the independent variable and not confounds
Reliability
The degree to which a measure is stable and consistent over time
Accuracy
The degree to which an experimental measure is free from error
Descriptive statistics
Statistics that summarize the data collected in a study
Central tendency
A measure that represents the typical response or the behavior of a group as a whole
Mean
A measure of central tendency that is the arithmetic average of a set of numbers
Median
A measure of central tendency that is the value in a set of numbers that falls exactly halfway between the lowest and highest numbers
Mode
A measure of central tendency that is the most frequent score or value in a set of numbers
Variability
In a set of numbers, how widely dispersed the values are from each other and from the mean
Standard deviation
A statistical measure of how far away each value is, on average, from the mean
Correlation coefficient
A descriptive statistic that indicates the strength and direction of the relationship between two variables
Inferential statistics
A set of procedures that enable researchers to decide whether differences between two or more groups are probably just change variations or whether they reflect true differences in the populations being compared.
Meta-analysis
A “study of studies” that combines the findings of multiple studies to arrive at a conclusion.
What are the seven steps of the scientific method?
Framing research questions
Reviewing the scientific literature to see if and/or how people are testing the theory
Forming a hypothesis based on the theory
Choosing a research method to test the hypothesis
Conducting the research study
Analyzing the data
Disseminating the results
