Vocab Flashcards
Research Design
The outline, plan, or strategy used to investigate the research problem
Weak Experimental Designs
Designs that do not control for may extraneous variables and provide weak evidence of cause and effect
One-Group Posttest-Only Design
Administration of a posttest to a single group of participants after they have been given an experimental treatment condition
One-Group Pretest-Posttest Design
Design in which a treatment condition is interjected between a pretest and a posttest of the dependent variable
Posttest-Only Design with Nonequivalent Groups
Design in which the performance of an experimental group is compared with that of a non equivalent control group at the posttest
RCT (Randomized Controlled Trial)
Experimental design with random assignment to experimental and control groups
Counterfactual
What the experimental group participants’ responses would have been if they had not received the treatment
Strong Experimental Design
Design that effectively control extraneous variables and provide strong evidence of cause and effect
Between-Participants Designs
Groups are produced by random assignment, and the different groups are exposed to the different levels of the independent variable
Randomized Designs
Between-participants designs in which participants are randomly assigned to groups
Posttest-Only Control Group Design
Administration of a posttest to two or more randomly assigned groups of participants that receive the different levels of the independent variable
Within-Participants Design
All participants receive all conditions (also called Repeated Measures Design)
Within-Participants Posttest Only Design
All participants receive all conditions, and a posttest is administered after each condition is administered
Between-Participants Variable
Type of independent variable where different participants receive different levels of the independent variable
Within-Participants Variable
Type of independent variable where all participants receive all levels of the independent variable
Pretest-Posttest Control-Group Design
Administration of a posttest to two or more randomly assigned groups of participants after the groups have been presented and administered the different levels of the independent variable
Ceiling Effect
Situation where participants’ pretest scores on the dependent variable are too high to allow for additional increases
Floor Effect
Situation where participants’ pretest scores on the dependent variable are too low to allow for additional decreases
Analysis of Covariance
A statistical procedure in which group means are compared after adjusted for pretest differences
Factorial Design
Two or more independent variables are studied to determine their separate and joint effects on the dependent variable
Between-Subjects Independent Variable
Type of independent variable where different participants receive different levels of the independent variable
Cell
Combination of levels of two or more independent variables
Cell Mean
The average score of the participants in a single cell
Marginal Mean
The average score of all participants receiving one level of an independent variable
Main Effect
The influence of one independent variable on the dependent variable
Interaction Effect
When the effect of two or more IV’s on the DV is more complex than indicated by the main effects
Two-Way Interaction
The effect on one independent variable on the department variable varies with the different levels of the other independent variable
Within-Subjects Independent Variable
Type of independent variable where all participants receive all levels of the independent variable
Factorial Design Based on a Mixed Model
A factorial design that uses a combination of within-participants and between-participants independent variables
Three-Way Interaction
A two-way interaction that changes at the different levels of the third independent variable
Quasi-Experimental Design
A research design in which an experimental procedure is applied but all extraneous variables are not controlled
Design Components
Structures and procedures used in constructing research designs
Nonequivalent Comparison Group Design
A quasi-experimental design in which the results obtained from nonequivalent experimental and control groups are compared
Increasing Control and Experimental Groups Effect
An outcome in which the experimental and the control groups differ at presenting and both increase from pre- to posttesting, but the experimental group increases at a faster rate
Selection-Maturation Effect
Participants in one group experience a different rate of maturation than participants in another group
Selection-History Effect
An extraneous event occurring between pretest and posttest influences participants in one group differently than participants in another group
Selection-Instrumentation Effect
Participants’ scores in one group are affected by the process of measurement differently than participants in another group
Selection-Attrition Effect
Participants that drop out of one group are dissimilar to those in another group
Selection-Regression Effect
Participants in one group display a different rate of regression to the mean that the participants in another group
Experimental-Group-Higher-than-Control-Group-at-Pretest Effect
An outcome in which the experimental performs better than the control group at pretesting, and only the experimental group’s scores change from pre- to posttesting
Experimental-Group-Lower-than-Control-Group-at-Pretest Effect
An outcome in which the control group performs better than the experimental group at pretesting, but only the experimental group improves from pre- to posttesting
Crossover Effect
An outcome in which the control group performs better at pretesting but the experimental group performs better at posttesting
Interrupted Time-Series Design
A quasi-experimental design in which a treatment effect is assessed by comparing the pattern of pre- and posttest scores for a single group of research participants
Regression Discontinuity Design
A design that assigns participants to groups based on their scores on an assignment variable and assesses the effect of a treatment by looking for a discontinuity in the groups regression lines
Assignment Measure
Measure used to assign participants to experimental and control groups. Those with scores below the cutoff score are assigned to one group, and those with scores above the cutoff are assigned to the other group
Qualitative Research
The type of research relying on qualitative research data
Mixed Methods Research
Type of research in which quantitative and qualitative data or approaches are combined in a single study
Researcher Bias
Only noticing data that support one’s prior expectations
Reflexivity
Thinking critically about one’s interceptions and biases
Negative-Case Sampling
Searching of cases that challenge one’s expectations or one’s current findings
Descriptive Validity
The factual accuracy of the account reported by the researcher
Investigator Triangulation
Use of multiple investigators to collect and interpret the data
Interpretive Validity
Accurately portraying the participants’ subjective viewpoints and meanings
Participant Feedback
Member checking to see if participants agree with the researcher’s statements, interpretations, and conclusions
Low-Inference Descriptors
Descriptions that are very close to participants’ words or are direct verbatim quotes
Theoretical Validity
Degree to which the theory or explanation fits the data
Extended Fieldwork
Spending enough time in the field to fully understand what is being studied
Theory Triangulation
The use of multiple theories or perspectives to aid in interpreting the data
Pattern Matching
Constructing and testing of a complex hypothesis
Peer Review
Discussing your interpretations with one’s peers and colleagues
Idiographic Causation
An action for a particular person in a local situation with an observable result
Nomological Causation
The standard view of causation in science; refers to causal relationships among variables
Researcher-as-Detective
Metaphor applied to researcher looking for the local cause of a single event
Methods Triangulation
Use of multiple research methods or methods of data collection
Data Triangulation
Use of multiple sources of data
Naturalistic Generalization
Generalization based on similarity, made by the reader of a research report
Theoretical Generalization
Generalization of a theoretical explanation beyond that particular research study
Phenomenology
Qualitative research method where the researcher attempts to understand and describe how one or more participants experience a phenomenon
Ethnography
Qualitative research method that focuses on the discovery and description of the culture of a group
Holism
Idea that a whole, such as a culture, is more than the sum of its individual parts
Emic Perspective
The insider’s perspective
Etic Perspective
The researcher’s external or “objective outsider” perspective
Participant Observation
Data collection method in which the researcher becomes an active participant in the group being investigated
Reactive Effect
Nontypical behavior of participants because of the presence of the researcher
Case Study
Qualitative research method in which the researcher provides a detailed description and account of one or more cases
Intrinsic Case Study
Case study in which the researcher is only interested in understanding the individual case
Instrumental Case Study
Case study in which the researcher studies a case in order to understand something more general than the particular case
Collective Case Study
Study of multiple cases for the purpose of comparison
Cross-Case Study
Case study analysis in which cases are compared and contrasted
Grounded Theory
Methodology for generating and developing a theory that is grounded in the particular data
Inside-Outside Validity
Present when the researcher provides both the insider and objective outsider perspectives
Weakness Minimization Validity
Present when the researcher compensates for the weakness of one approach through the use of an additional approach
Sequential Validity
Making sure that the ordering of quantitative and qualitative components in a sequential design does not bias the results
Descriptive Statistics
The type of statistical analysis focused on describing, summarizing, or explaining a data set
Inferential Statistics
The type of statistical analysis focused on making inferences about populations based on sample data
Frequency Distribution
Data arrangement in which the frequencies of each unique data value is shown
Measure of Central Tendency
Numerical value expressing what is typical pf the values of a quantitative variable
Measure of Variability
Numerical value expressing how spread out or how much variation is present in the values of a quantitative variable
Variance
The average deviation of data values from their mean in squared units
Standard Deviation
The square root of the variance
Z Score
A score that has been transformed into standard deviation units
Unstandardized Difference Between Means
The difference between two means in the variables’ natural units
Cohen’s d
The difference between two means in standard deviation units
Mean Difference M1 - M2
d= —————————- = ————
Standard Deviation SD
Effect Size Indicator
Index of magnitude or strength of relationship or difference between means
Correlation Coefficient
Index indicating the strength and direction of linear relationship between two quantitative variables
Negative Correlation
Correlation in which values of two variables tend to move in opposite directions
Positive Correlation
Correlation in which values of two variables tend to more in the same direction
Curvilinear Relationship
A nonlinear relationship between two quantitative variables
Curvilinear Regression
The type of regression analysis that can accurately model curved relationships
Partial Correlation Coefficient
The correlation between two quantitative variables controlling for one or more variables
Regression Analysis
Use of one or more quantitative independent variables to explain or predict the values of a single quantitative dependent variable
Simple Regression
Regression analysis with one dependent variable and one independent variable
Multiple Regression
Regression analysis with one dependent variable and two or more independent variables
Regression Equation
The equation that defines a regression line
Regression Line
The line of “best fit” based on a regression equation
Regression Coefficient
The slope or change in Y given a one unit change in X
Partial Regression Coefficient
The regression coefficient in a multiple regression equation
Contingency Table
Table used to examine the relationship between categorical variables
Rates
The percentage of people in a group that have a particular characteristic
Sampling Distribution
The theoretical probability distribution of the values of a statistic that would result if you selected all possible samples of a particular size from a population
Sampling Distribution of the Mean
The theoretical probability distribution of the means of all possible samples of a particular size selected from o population
Standard Error
The standard deviation of a sampling distribution
Test Statistic
A statistic that follows a known sampling distribution and is used in significance testing
Confidence Interval
An interval estimate inferred from sample data that has a sample data that has a certain probability of including the true population parameter
Hypothesis Testing
The process of testing a predicted relationship or hypothesis by making observations and then comparing the observed facts with the hypothesis or predicted relationship; the branch of inferential statistics focused on determining when the null hypothesis can or cannot be rejected in favor of the alternative hypothesis
Null Hypothesis
Typically the hypothesis of no difference between means or no relationship in the population
Alternative Hypothesis
The logical opposite of the null hypothesis
Alpha Level
The point at which one would reject the null hypothesis and accept the alternative hypothesis (usually 0.05)
Independent Samples t Test
The significance test of the difference between two means that uses the t probability distribution
Probability Value (p value)
The likelihood of the observed value (or a more extreme value) of a statistic, if the null hypothesis were true
Statistically Significant
Conclusion that an observed finding would be very unlikely if the null hypothesis were true
Statistical Power
The probability of correctly rejecting the null hypothesis when it is false
Type I Error
Rejection of a true null hypothesis; False positive
Type II Error
Failure to reject a false null hypothesis; False negative
t Test for Correlation Coefficient
Statistical test used to determine if a correlation coefficient is statistically significant
Degrees of Freedom
The number of values that are “free to vary”; it’s used when computing a statistic to be used in inferential statistics
One-Way Analysis of Variance (ANOVA)
Statistical test used when you have one quantitative DV and one categorical IV
Post Hoc Tests
Follow-up test to one-way ANOVA when the categorical IV has three or more levels; used to determine which pairs of means are significantly different
Analysis of Covariance (ANCOVA)
Statistical test used when you have one quantitative DV ad a mixture of categorical and quantitative IV
Two-Way Analysis of Variance (Two-Way ANOVA)
Statistical test used when you have one quantitative DV and two categorical IVs
One-Way Repeated Measures Analysis of Variance (One-Way Repeated Measures ANOVA)
Statistical test used when you have one quantitative DV and one repeated measures IV
t Test for Regression Coefficients
Statistical test used to determine if a regression coefficient is statistically significant
Semi-Partial Correlation Squared
The amount of variance in the dependent variable uniquely explained by a single quantitative independent variable
Chi-Squared Test
Statistical test used to determine if a relationship observed in a contingency table is statistically significant
Research Ethics
A set of guidelines to assist the researcher in conducting ethical research
Research Misconduct
Fabricating, falsifying, or plagiarizing the proposing, performing, performing, reviewing, or reporting of research results
Ethical Dilemma
The investigator’s conflict in weighing the potential cost to the participant against the potential gain to be accrued from the research project
Beneficence
Acting for the benefit of others
Nonmaleficence
Do no harm to others
Informed Consent
Informing the research participant of all aspects of the study that might influence his or her willingness to volunteer to participate
Assent
Agreement from a minor to participate in research after receiving an age-appropriate explanation of the study
Active Consent
Verbally agreeing and signing a form consenting to participate in research
Passive Consent
Consent is received from a parent or guardian by not returning the consent form
Active Deception
Deliberately misleading research participants by giving them false information
Passive Deception
Withholding information from the research participants by not giving them all the details of the experiment
Debriefing
A post experimental discussion or interview about the details of the study, including an explanation for the use of any deception
Dehoaxing
Debriefing the participants about any deception that was used in the experiment
Desensitizing
Eliminating any undesirable influence that the experiment might have had on the participant
