Virtue Ethics

Question 1

Where did virtue ethics originate from?

Answer 1

Began with Plato and Aristotle and unlike other normative ethics it is not focused on acts being right or wrong, but on how to be a good person. It looks at what makes a good person and the qualities or virtues that makes therm good, Virtue ethics is agent centred morality morality rather than act centred, what sort of person should I be?

Question 2

What was Plato’s moral theory?

Answer 2

Not one of judging particular moral actions, centres on the achievement of man’s highest good, involving the cultivation of his soul inner well being and the harmonious well being in his life - eudaimonia or happiness. Happiness must be attained through the pursuit of virtue and actions are good when helping us to achieve this. Plato seemed to centralised the virtues of temperance, prudence, courage and justice. When these virtues were in balance a persons’ actions would be good. Aristotle different central virtues.

Question 3

How did Aristotle define a virtue?

Answer 3

” a trait of character that is manifested in regular and consistent action” - constant quality of myself. e.g. honesty is a virtue, you couldn’t claim you were an honest person if you told the truth once, it is over time.

Question 4

What does arete mean?

Answer 4

The quality that makes something a good example of its kind e.g. the sharpness of a knife, needs to be sharp to be good example of its kind. Excellences are needed for a humans to be a good human being, Virtue ethics also aretaic ethics. Fire - arete would be its warmth, quality that makes something good.

Question 5

What did Aristotle think about all things ( including all humans)?

Answer 5

He thought everything had a purpose/telos. 2 types of virtues: intellectual developed by training and education and moral virtues developed through habit. The main goal for a human being was to become a virtuous being, emphasis not on what people do, but on what kind of people they are e..g kind person practising acts of kindness until habit established in a person’s characters. Some need better teaching and guiding to develop a virtuous character.

Question 6

What did he think the virtues help us to do?

Answer 6

Lead us to a good life e.g. courage, compassion, justice and honesty. The person who aims to cultivate these qualities maximising his/her potential for a happy life, a quality of happiness described as eudaimonia, involves being happy and living well.

Question 7

What kind of value do the virtues hold?

Answer 7

Intrinsic, not means to an end and should be desired for its own sake, not just for the individual also their society. Individuals who develop the virtues can act in an integrated way gaining satisfaction from doing the right thing and not for any external goals. They won’t act in a certain way because they ought to do so or they want to, but because they know if it is the right thing to do. The right way to act was the golden mean, the perfect balance between 2 extremes.

Question 8

What book did Aristotle write about the virtues?

Answer 8

Nicomachean ethics

Question 9

What are the 3 ways in which Eudaimonia can be experienced?

Answer 9

1) Pleasure - a spiritual sense of well being.
2) Honour - living and working for others.
3) Reflection - the pursuit of knowledge.

Question 10

What is the ultimate human virtue?

Answer 10

Reason linked to prudence. Not shot ability to think, but a moral sense - putting into action what you used your reason to judge as good.

Question 11

What is practical wisdom?

Answer 11

Means understanding and responding. We are all capable of being virtuous and need to get into the habit from childhood, first doing it because I have to so after I can enjoy being virtuous. However only a few will achieve this, only gentleman philosophers not female.

Question 12

What are some examples of the 12 moral virtues?

Answer 12

Courage - life is full of dangers without it could not advance ourselves and our communities, modesty - not offend others and temperance - not making extreme decisions which could damage the community.

Question 13

What are some examples of primary intellectual virtues?

Answer 13

Prudence - most important of the 21, self governing, aware of the future, Organised, law abiding. Addresses the situation before analysing what would be the most virtuous thing to do, using reason.
Scientific knowledge - help find cures for diseases etc.

Question 14

What are some examples of the secondary intellectual virtues?

Answer 14

Cleverness - help the most people in the situation and resourcefulness use what you have to help you and others do the best thing in the situation.

Question 15

What is the golden mean/doctrine of the mean?

Answer 15

Virtue is to be found in this, finding the balance between 2 vices - habitual practise of wrongdoing/ extremes, We can become good by finding the middle point between 2 extremes: excess ( too much) and deficiency - not enough. Start off with the potential for virtues not born with them, formed by habit and come from nature around us and our circumstances

Question 16

What types of person does the doctrine of the mean produce?

Answer 16

1) The sophron - naturally lives in the mean without effort,
2) The enkretes - living in the mean, tempted by strong enough will power to live in the mean.
3) The akrates - a person without will or weak willed can;t live in the mean by overcoming temptation. The mean isn’t the same for everyone, depends on circumstance. You must apply phronesis - practical wisdom to decide on what the right actions, necessary as we grow up and move away from rules and demands of authority figures, Become more autonomous and agent centred.

Question 17

How does following the golden mean increase how well the person fares in life?

Answer 17

Socially - as rational and social beings we want and need company and live in communities, Without virtues our communities would seize to function. As virtues can change to vices.
Individually - We all pursue different careers and interests and rely on self control, courage etc to conduct our lives. Our character determines how we translate these skills/ virtues into action.

Question 18

What are some examples of living in the mean?

Answer 18

Virtuous mean = courage, vice of deficiency = cowardice and vice of excess - foolhardiness.
Virtuous mean - right ambition, vice of deficiency = want of ambition, vice of excess = over ambition.
Humour, boorishness, buffoonery.

Question 19

How did Aquinas endorse Aristotle’s thoery?

Answer 19

Cardinal virtues: Prudence, justice, temperance and fortitude. Theological virtues: faith, hope and charity, Jesus God in human form, highest form of virtue. Ethics was the dominant system of morality, live your life according to the 7 virtues and avoid the 7 deadly sins and you are living a good life.
Refocus on what makes a good person in the enlightenment, partially a reaction against meta ethical obsession with ethical language e.g. what does it mean when I say charity is right?

Question 20

What did Elizabeth Anscombe think?

Answer 20

Modern moral philosophy 1958, criticised heavily the concepts of moral law and obligation, character of the agent was the most significant. System based on rules and obligation only work where there is a “judge” usually seen as God.
In the modern world the lawgiver isn’t prominent and moral obligation is nonsensical if a community doesn’t believe in God, without God there is no reason to follow rules or keep your obligations.
Actions tell us nothing about a person - good actions don’t make a good person. The way for humans to better themselves is to resurrect the concept of human flourishing or eudaimonia.
Good should be associated with people and their character, not their actions.
Wanted a return to Aristotle’s virtue ethics.
Said human flourishing doesn’t require a God, but argues for one herself.

Question 21

What did Macintyre think?

Answer 21

After time: a study of moral theory 1981, practical ethics rooted in the real world.Attempted to resurrect thinking about virtue, criticised meta ethics saying it divorced people from ethics. Ethicists lived in ivory towers debating the meaning of good/bad instead of being concerned with real ethical issues. E.g. a mother whose child has been murdered won’t care about the definition of “bad.”
Modern ethics overly emphasises reason without putting strength on people, their characters and the context of their lives. Human communities should be central to human life. Personal virtuous behaviour in society should help and benefit everyone: In any situation we must see that “we are practitioners in relation to other practitioners.”
Society’s ideas of good behaviour allow good to be realised. The most important virtues are justice, courage an honesty, only achieve moral excellence through practising these, help prevent organisations and institution becoming morally corrupt.
In a society with little virtues, individualistic characters are moralised e.g. bureaucratic managers going for profits and right aesthetes ageing rockstar, celebrity obsessed culture.
Shows virtue ethics is not culturally aware e.g virtuous to marry a 12 year old girl in some countries. Is there a common good for society is we have different virtues?

Question 22

What did Phillipa Foot think? ( Virtue and vices article) 1978.

Answer 22

The wise person directs their will to what is good and a good is something that is intrinsically and extrinsically good, motives and action important. Towards certain goals that are “good in themselves” while others are “ good for the sake of something else.” E.g friendship founded on what’s in it for me is hallow and friendship founded on he virtues like honesty will, be more fruitful
Goodness is the natural flourishing of humans as living beings, ethics shouldn’t be about dry theorising but about making the world a better place. The virtues benefit the individual and the community, contributing to the good life.
Virtues and skills are different things, we make a deliberate mistake with a skill, but not damage our character or reputation. Someone deliberately acting in a non virtuous way damages their reputation and character.
Degrees of virtuousness is a person resisting great temptation being more virtuous than someone never tempted. Some argue that virtues may have used to a bad end that’s not eudaimonia. A virtue isn’t a virtue if it works towards a bad end e.g loyalty to Hitler.

Question 23

What are the weaknesses of Foot’s argument?

Answer 23

Assumes we all work towards similar goals when in reality we work towards different goals and have different motives, it is foolish to make the assumption we all work towards the common good. But plausible definition of 2 distinct types of goals.
Offering little more than a crititque of other theories and discussing virtue ethics. However highlights that the thoeries of Aquinas and Kant are very influenced by the concept of virtue.
Very vague - doesn’t answer the question of degree of virtuousness.

Question 24

What did Taylor believe?

Answer 24

Wrote Ethics, faith and reason 1985.Religion distorts ethics in the western world. Postulated although reason is essential in ethical theory Christianity had led people away from it to depend on blind faith and “divine command.”
Disputed Christianity’s focus on the equality of all where the “ poor, weak, ignorant and stupid” are promised their place in heaven, thinking this discourages self improvement. There is no point in being brave or strong when the opposites of weak and meek are promised heaven.
Pride in individual self is good, whilst Christianity proclaims this is a sin.
Thought returning to virtue ethics would mean humankind was improved.

Question 25

What are the weaknesses of Taylor’s argument?

Answer 25

Surely promoting equality is being virtuous?
Christianity encourages self improvement as they strive to be more like Jesus who is of the highest virtue.
Christians usually try to help and support their communities not just relaxing because God has the highest power, which is virtuous.

Question 26

What are the strengths of virtue ethics?

Answer 26

Involves all aspects of human life and society, inclusive.
Compatible with Christian ethics.
Concentrates on what it means to be a good person, allows people to learn from their mistakes and become a good person over time. Nussbaum argues this makes it a caring way of making ethical decisions, as full view of the whole person.
It is flexible and allows for different virtues to be valued in different cultures. Deals with individual situations.
Logical theory - focuses on our practical reasoning and the traits that will help society flourish.
Encourages us to become better people and self improve aspiring to be like virtuous people around us.

Question 27

What are the weaknesses of virtue ethics?

Answer 27

Robert Louden - virtue ethics doesn’t given answers to specific moral dilemmas e.g. abortion. Difficult to apply to actual situations, we should be virtuous but how?
Is it possible to ever be fully virtuous? De motivating.
The virtues are subjective and don’t leave room for cultural relativism.
If everyone lived in the mean it could be boring, as lack of room for creativity.
Aristotle’s virtues are culture bound. He is racist, sexist, ageist and speciest according to our standards today. Virtues are overtly masculine.
How do we decide what types of virtues are most important to develop and what things are virtuous? MacIntyre.
If virtues clash which is more important?
It is hard to realise when a virtue becomes a vice, as it gives no solution to the issue of people doing bad things when they believe they are acting virtuously.
Dependent on strong communities.
Could be seen as encouraging subjective moral action through personal moral development.
How will know if we reach eudaimonia?
Naive to assume everyone aims for goodness.
Goodness isn’t reached in 1 way, Owen Flanagan: “ people find their good in many different ways.”
Keenan - asks what sort of virtuous person one should becomeloving and committed? Or perhaps decisive and controlled? How is virtue measured?

Question 28

What is the main flaw of virtue ethics?

Answer 28

It doesn’t seem agent centred, as it focusses on the acts of virtuous people. If we are instructed to follow the acts of virtuous people, surely that means we’re not looking at ourselves?
It is vague and very hard to put into practise.