Vietnam

Question 1

Two features of the origins of the First Indochina War

Answer 1

(1945-54)
France and Japan
- France and Japan took advantage rice, corn, coal and rubber
- French occupied since the 19th century, Japan took over in 1941 to extend their influence in SEA

Aims of the Vietminh
- Establish an independent Vietnam, free from foreign domestication
- Small-scale attacks against isolated French outposts were successful, led to war against France

Question 2

Two features of the tactics of General Giap

Answer 2

(Served from 1944–1992)
Guerilla warfare
- Hid in the jungle, hit-and-run attacks on French patrols, then retreated back
- Small arms (portable, helped overcome difference in technological advantage) and booby traps, which were hidden very well and forced soldiers to pay more attention to everything

Superiority in numbers at Dien Bien Phu
- Giap had 60,000 men with 200 heavy artillery, French only had 15,000 troops
- Surrounded and trapped the soldiers inside a garrison for 56 days

Question 3

Two features of the
search for a diplomatic solution

Answer 3

(~1954-55)
Done in the Geneva Conference May 1954 and didn’t achieve much of its aims
- Negotiations on Korea achieved nothing, with the result that it continued to be regulated by the terms of the ceasefire agreed the previous year
- America’s delegate boycotted it due to his dislike of communists so America didn’t have a big role

Resulted in the establishment of two Vietnams
- A split (meant to be temporary) was made at the 17th parallel
- The French were also to withdraw from Vietnam, meaning that both Vietnams were to have their own separate governments
- Election dates were set where a “democratic” election would be held to reunite the two Vietnams but obviously it didn’t happen cuz of Diem lmfao

Question 4

Two features of the French defeat at Dien Bien Phu

Answer 4

(13 Mar-7 May (defeat) 1954)
Superiority in numbers
- Giap had 60,000 men with 200 heavy artillery, French only had 15,000 troops
- Surrounded and trapped the soldiers inside a garrison for 56 days

Loss of the airstrip
- Anti-aircraft guns rendered airstrip unusable in first few days
- French depended on the airstrip for most supplies, so had to surrender

Question 5

Immediate consequences of the French defeat at Dien Bien Phu

Answer 5

Geneva Agreement (May 1954)
- Vietnam would be divided temporarily along the 17th parallel, North under Ho Chi Minh and South under Ngo Dinh Diem
- Eisenhower wanted the French to continue fighting, but they had had enough. Agreed that Vietminh forces would withdraw from the South and the French would pull out of the North
- Vietminh wanted early elections so people could elect a government, and were confident of winning. Western powers wanted a long delay as they were worried about Ho Chi Minh’s popularity. A date for the elections was fixed: July 1956

Question 6

Two features of the Geneva Conference

Answer 6

(May 1954)
Independence for Vietnam
- Discussions started just after Dien Bien Phu, a massive French defeat, so they agreed to withdraw from the North
- Decided that no foreign troops could enter Vietnam during the two-year period of elections

Most did not want to sign the agreement
- US refused to sign, as they were convinced national elections in Vietnam would result in an overwhelming victory for Ho, but abided by the agreement
- Ho signed reluctantly, but believed it cheated him out of the spoils of his victory. Diem refused, wanting a united Vietnam
- Few at the time believed that the Geneva Agreement really would end the conflict

Question 7

Two features/aims of the Domino Theory

Answer 7

Aimed to stop communism from spreading in South East Asia
- Theory that if one country fell to communism, the next few would too, one after another
- China became communist in 1949, and North Korea and Vietnam also became communist, so what would be next?

One of the main reasons why Diem was elected President of South Vietnam
- Eisenhower wanted non-communist leader for South Vietnam
- Provided Diem with money, weapons and supplies to prop up South Vietnam
- Since Diem was Catholic and most of Vietnam was Buddhist, would have been difficult without US help

Question 8

Two features of the formation of South Vietnam

Answer 8

(Oct 1955)
US involvement
- US feared the spread of communism
- Domino theory: if one country fell to communism, the next few would too, one after another
- China became communist in 1949, and North Korea and Vietnam also became communist, so what would be next?

Diem was elected
- Eisenhower wanted a non-communist leader for South Vietnam
- US provided Diem with money, weapons and supplies to prop up South Vietnam
- Since Diem was Catholic and most of Vietnam was Buddhist, would have been difficult without US help

Question 9

Two features of life in South Vietnam

Answer 9

Diem was corrupt
- Diem rigged elections and restricted freedom of the press and speech, as well as ‘taking care’ of political enemies
- “Re-educated” 12,000 supporters of the Vietminh, stubborn ones were executed

Discrimination towards Buddhists, favoured catholicism
- Supporting catholicism, Diem banned the display of religious flags in May 1963
- Buddhists flew their flag on Buddha’s birthday eve, and nine were killed, eight children

Question 10

Two features of life in North Vietnam

Answer 10

Asserting communist values
- Ideological opponents (Catholic priests, Buddhist monks etc.) taken by Lao Dao agents in the night and executed or sent to “re-education camps”
- As many as half a million people died from the Lao Dong’s re-education campaign

Land and food reforms
- Private land + wealth seized and redistributed to landless peasants, reorganised into agricultural cooperatives to produce food
- Landowners were publicly denounced, and as many as 50 000 were executed

Question 11

Two features of the NLF

Answer 11

(Founded in Dec 1960)
Started due to unpopularity of Southern government
- Commies in South knew that peasants wanted to fight back, but Diem’s attack on Vietminh was successful and Southern Vietminh supporters were getting eliminated by Diem’s police and army
- Dec 1960: Communists in Hanoi set up NLF in South to overthrow Diem, get rid of Americans and reunite Vietnam

Utilised guerilla warfare to get upper hand on US
- Ho called it a “grasshopper fighting an elephant” and frequently used hit and run attacks, taking advantage of the dense forests in South Vietnam
- Used small arms supplied by China and the Soviet Union to increase motility and later built the Ho Chi Minh trail along with youth volunteers to create a long series of roads that went everywhere throughout North Vietnam

Question 12

Two features of the Ho Chi Minh Trail

Answer 12

Kept communists in the South supplied
- Network of 15,000 kilometres through jungles and mountains, if one route bombed, another used
- Despite bombing, at least two-thirds of the North’s supplies made it to the South

Bombed by US
- Airstrikes against villages and roads along it due to the amount of weaponry it supplied
- Became very controversial in the media and increased criticism from Americans

Question 13

Two features of the response of the US

Answer 13

(~1960-63)
Kennedy wanted people to think he was tough on communism
- Increased American involvement in South Vietnam, which was against communism
- Increased number of military experts training ARVN (South Vietnam army), 16,000 by 1963

Refused to send troops to South Vietnam
- During the Korean War, the Koreans brought the Chinese to defend their fellow communists
- Didn’t want to increase tensions so it wouldn’t happen again and maybe escalate to nuclear wars

Question 14

Two features of the Strategic Hamlet Programme

Answer 14

(1962)
Increased resentment towards Diem
- Entire village populations were moved many kilometres away unwillingly
- Had to pay to rebuild homes, which were free from the USA, and not enough food was provided

Communist supporters could spread their ideas
- Despite villagers not providing them food, NLF did not starve since food was easy to come by
- Supporters inside could spread ideas in new areas, many became supporters because of terrible treatment

Question 15

Two features of the fall of Diem (1963)

Answer 15

(1 Nov 1963)
Caused by Buddhist opposition
- Most of South Vietnam was Buddhist, so many people were against Diem, leading to his fall
- Buddhists flew the Buddhist flag on eve of Buddha’s birthday on May 1963, and nine were killed, eight children
- Brutality only increased unpopularity

The Coup D’état
- Kennedy realised that Diem was not popular enough to win against the Vietcong, so he approved a coup to change government
- On 1 Nov 1963, troops surrounded Diem’s palace, so Diem and Nhu fled

Question 16

Two features of the Gulf of Tonkin incident (1964)

Answer 16

(3 Aug 1964)
USA escalated its response in Vietnam
- Congress thought a second attack had taken place and they needed to teach North Vietnam a lesson
- Johnson proposed Gulf of Tonkin resolution on 7 August, let him take any military measures and escalate level of American involvement

Lack of clear communication
- 3 Aug 1964, captain of Maddox and Joy reported an attack without evidence
- Johnson didn’t believe it was real, but wanted to prove his Republican opponent wrong for shaming him as a coward who didn’t fight communism

Question 17

Two features of the Second Indochina War

Answer 17

(1955-1975)
Rapid escalation of US involvement
- Johnson elected after JKF’s assassination, much harsher approach to communism. Approach to domino theory: “if you let a bully come into your front yard one day, the next day he’ll be up on your porch, and the day after that he’ll rape your wife in your own bed”
- Proposed Gulf of Tonkin resolution on 7 August, let him take any military measures

Televised
- Dec 1966, Harrison Salisbury first American reporter permitted to North Vietnam, reported casualties and destruction to civilian areas
- Crucial events such as Tet Offensive was shown to US public, as well as film of a 15-man suicide squad fighting into Saigon American embassy who were only killed six hours later. Seeing the horror of war themselves shocked the US public

Question 18

Two features of Johnson

Answer 18

More aggressive approach
- Proposed Gulf of Tonkin resolution on 7 Aug, let him take any military measures and escalate level of American involvement
- Approach to domino theory: “if you let a bully come into your front yard one day, the next day he’ll be up on your porch, and the day after that he’ll rape your wife in your own bed”

Widened credibility gap
- Battles were fabricated, too optimistic and exaggerated, only bare minimum told to the public
- Tet Offensive showed true extent of Viet Cong control and US military weakness

Question 19

Two features of McNamara

Answer 19

Motivated Johnson to escalate the war and to send many troops into Vietnam
- Committed to helping South Vietnam overcome communist influences, including the Viet Cong
- Initially encouraged further military action in Vietnam after visiting the country thrice in 1962, 1964 and 1966
- US troops in South Vietnam increased from 900 to 16,000 advisers in 1963

Later pushed for de-escalation
- Used enemy body counts instead of territory objectives to measure the American’s success, but this led to a war of attrition
- Began voicing doubts about the war as early as 1965, privately urged LBJ to limit troop levels and pushed for an unconditional end to the bombing past the 17th parallel
- Eventually resigned in 1968 due to his disillusionment

Question 20

Two features of Westmoreland

Answer 20

Emphasis on body count
- Convinced that the war would be won by killing large numbers of the enemy, used body count to boost morale and show the public that they were winning the war
- To increase the body count, patrols baited NVA or VC with more men, then called in airstrikes or artillery fire, causing terrible casualties

Search and Destroy campaign
- Soldiers searched out and destroyed the big enemy forces and the regular or professional troops of the NVA in the South. This would leave the South Vietnamese troops to deal with the less well-trained guerrilla forces or Vietcong
- Often couldn’t find the enemy, so the frustrated troops settled on searching and destroying Vietnamese villages instead to find Vietcong supporters

Question 21

Two features of the jungle war

Answer 21

(1965-68)
Guerilla warfare
- Jungle effectively hid Vietcong members, allowing for more evasive maneuvers
- Small arms (more portable, let them overcome vast difference in technological advantage) and booby traps, (hidden well, forced US soldiers to pay attention to everything, slowing forces and degrading morale)

Defoliants
- US troops often could not find or destroy their enemies, failure of Search & Destroy
- Chemicals sprayed in jungles to kill off vegetation to prevent Vietcong from using the jungle for cover
- Most used defoliant was Agent Orange, later found to cause cancer

Question 22

Two features of Search and Destroy

Answer 22

Military failure
- US troops searched and destroyed big enemy forces in the South, South Vietnamese troops dealt with the less well-trained guerrillas or Vietcong
- Though they had better firepower, couldn’t find the elusive enemy in the jungles

Lowered morale in USA soldiers
- Frustrated, settled on searching out innocent villages and destroying those instead
- Called “Zippo” raids after the name of the lighters they used to set fire to the thatched houses

Question 23

Two features of Operation Rolling Thunder

Answer 23

(2 Mar 1964-2 Nov 1968)
Utter American military failure
- Highly ineffective as bombs missed a lot due to environment
- More bombs were dropped than in the World War II, 3 million tonnes
- No goals were achieved and it was a major resource drain

Major humanitarian crisis
- Due to inability for accurate targeting, many civilians were caught
- The usage of cluster bombs caused major damage maiming people rather than killing them
- Many cluster bombs go undetonated in Vietnam

Question 24

Two features of a televised war

Answer 24

Shocked American public
- Witnessed 15-man suicide squad fighting into American embassy in Saigon, killed after six hours
- Loss of support including Walter Cronkite, most respected journalist at the time, which influenced millions of opinions

Widened credibility gap
- December 1966, Harrison Salisbury first American reporter permitted to North Vietnam, reported casualties and destruction to civilian areas
- US military always denied that their bombs hit civilian targets, and there weren’t many of them

Question 25

Two features of the siege of Khe Sanh

Answer 25

(21 Jan-9 Jul 1968)
Lots of bloodshed
- North wanted to recreate victory at Dienbienphu, so 20,000 Vietnamese surrounded 5500 Americans
- American were within artillery range of NVA, Vietnam was able to explode the ammunition dump with 1500 tons of explosives
- US dropped 5000 bombs daily, equivalent 3 Hiroshima sized nuclear bombs
- 274 Americans killed, 2500 wounded

Loss of confidence
- US army abandoned base after siege, many outraged to why they defended it in the first place
- Westmoreland claimed it prevented enemy control over the northwest corner of South Vietnam and inflicted heavy losses on PAVN forces
- Johnson administration lost confidence in strategy of attrition and claims of progress in the war effort

Question 26

Two features of the Tet Offensive

Answer 26

(31 Jan-23 Sep 1968)
Dramatic political impact on American public
- Broadcast of brutal execution of a VC suspect who hadn’t been confirmed by the hands of the Chief of Saigon Police shocked the American public
- US government’s denial only served to turn more people against the war and widen credibility gap

Military disaster
- Abandoned familiar guerilla tactics for conventional battles, not used to fighting in cities
- NLF wiped out in the south, best fighters had to be replaced with Northerners, so under control of Hanoi government

Question 27

Two features of the battle of Hue

Answer 27

(31 Jan-3 Mar 1968)
Brutal massacre
- VC executed around 3000 civilians for “having links with South Vietnamese government”
- Killed anyone they considered hostile, took their chance to get rid of large number of enemies

Strengthened American argument for continuing the war
- One of the bloodiest battles of the Vietnam War which lasted for 25 days
- 600 ARVN and US deaths, 5000 NVA and VC killed in battle, resulting in a pyrrhic American victory
- Number of deaths showed that many thousands would die if the communists won

Question 28

Two features of the failure of (Paris) peace talks

Answer 28

(May 1968)
Johnson started them lol
- Due to negative media coverage on the Tet offensive and how the war seemed unwinnable, Johnson decided to try to push for peace
- Had tried to negotiate in 1965 and 1967 but to no avail

Didn’t do anything to resolve the war in Indochina
- Both sides refused to give in: NV refused to immediately withdraw all troops from below the DMZ and recognise the legitimacy of the Saigon government which pissed the US off
- US delegates balked at a proposal to include the NLF in a coalition government in the South and Hanoi was pissed that Saigon refused to recognise the legitimacy of the Vietcong
- Stalled for four months until Johnson agreed to stop Operation Rolling Thunder and suspend all bombing

Question 29

Two features of widening the war in Cambodia and Laos (“secret bombing”)

Answer 29

(1964-1973)
Bombings in Laos aimed to destroy Ho Chi Minh trail
- Trail was integral in transporting weapons, there were many facilities camouflaged from aerial view
- From 1964 to 1973, the US dropped more than 2.5M tons of ordnance, but up to a third of the bombs dropped did not explode
- Laos was contaminated with vast quantities of unexploded ordnance, and over 25,000 people have been killed or injured by UXO in Laos since

Increased anti-war sentiment in the USA
- Many saw that another “Vietnam War” was going to begin
- Protests took place in universities across the United States when Nixon announced US troops had entered neutral Cambodia
- Four students shot dead by National Guard in Ohio, sparking off 400 protests and strikes in more universities

Question 30

Two features of relations with China

Answer 30

China initially helped Vietnam during the War
- CPV immediately got assistance from China after the Geneva Conference
- Beijing agreed to provide rice, sent a team of economic advisers and experts to North Vietnam, substantial military aid to Vietnam before 1963
- Over the course of the War, China shipped over 17 million artillery shells, 65,000 artillery pieces, 1 billion bullets

China pulled out of Vietnam in 1972
- Cultural Revolution
- Vietnam did not take as much of a priority due to the heated political climate, tension between Sino-Soviet relations

Question 31

Two features of Kissinger and Le Duc Tho in the Paris peace talks (1972)

Answer 31

(1972)
Kissinger used them to increase Nixon’s popularity
- Keen to get an agreement before Nixon stood for election in November, which would ensure a second term as the general American public was anti-war
- Nixon ended up winning by a huge majority

Le Duc Tho didn’t like the terms
- Would leave the South at the mercy of the North, so Thieu rejected the terms at first, and Tho broke of negotiations in December
- 18 December 1972, Nixon ordered a massive bombing campaign over North Vietnam until Thieu gave in and signed

Question 32

Two features of Vietnamisation and Withdrawal

Answer 32

(1973)
Decreased role of American troops
- Nixon Doctrine: policy of transferring responsibility of combat from American forces to ARVN, withdrawing US troops
- White House announced withdrawal of 25,000 US forces on June 8 1969, citing improved ARVN capability

Increased supplies to ARVN
- To make up for decrease in American troops, MACV set up training activities in a “modernisation and improvement programme”
- Reassured war’s supporters that commitment to South Vietnam remained strong

Question 33

Two features of the renewed North Vietnamese offensive

Answer 33

(1973-75)
Bloodbath
- Used heavy weapons such as tanks and artillery, which were supplied by SU Union and China, significant shift from earlier guerrilla-style attacks and ambushes
- Let them launch large-scale attacks on SV cities and towns, many more casualties
- Easter Offensive in 1972 was the largest attack of the war and involved more than 200,000 troops.

Collapse of South Vietnam
- Vietnamisation meant that there were fewer and fewer US troops, so despite US support, ARVN no match for the NVA
- NVA forces entered Saigon in Apr 1975 and Thieu, leader of SV, fled the country to live in Britain
- Took over Saigon and renamed it to Ho Chi Minh City, declared as reunited Vietnam’s capital city

Question 34

Two features of the final offensive

Answer 34

(March–April 1975)
ARVN collapse in North
- Operational planning was limited only to a few trusted subordinates and staff work was non-existent
- Combat engineers had to complete a pontoon bridge across the Dà Rằng River. That night VC forces began to intercept and stall, dubbed the “convoy of tears”
- Reached PAVN roadblock - met with unrelenting shower of artillery shells, mortar rounds and rockets
- Only 20,000 of the 60,000 troops survived

Reunification of Vietnam
- Ho Chi Minh Campaign: December 1974, North Vietnamese launched major attack against the lightly defended province of Phuoc Long
- They successfully overran the provincial capital at Phuoc Binh on January 6, 1975

Question 35

Two features of the fall of Saigon

Answer 35

(30 Apr 1975)
Evacuation
- Operation Frequent Wind, the helicopter evacuation of US personnel and at-risk Vietnamese. More than 7,000 people were evacuated by helicopter from various points in Saigon
- Under the table payments for visas and passports increased sixfold, refugees posted advertisements looking for sponsors

Communists had large influence over city
- Communications cut between the outside world and Saigon
- “Re-education classes” for former ARVN, made them take up farming to regain full standing in society, 200,000 South Vietnamese were sent

Question 36

Two features/effects of the war on civilians in Vietnam

Answer 36

Widespread destruction of environment
- US military used more than 14 million tons of explosives and gallons of defoliants in South countryside
- 2000 killed and wounded trying to clear away unexploded munitions
- Most used defoliant: Agent Orange, later found to cause cancer and birth defects. Affected areas still cannot grow anything

Poverty
- Destruction of farms and villages from bombs turned huge numbers of peasants homeless
- Many of these people fled to the cities and made a living any way they could—including illegal activities
- One of the world’s poorest countries more than 20 years later

Question 37

Two features of US response to guerrilla warfare

Answer 37

Used defoliants
- Chemicals sprayed in jungles to kill off vegetation, as the jungle made it difficult to find Vietcong and traverse, and caused many military failures in the past (such as many bombs missing due to the environment in Operation Rolling Thunder)
- Used on crops, kept guerrillas from getting food and punished villages suspected of helping communists. Forced them to re-settle away from VC-controlled areas, which convinced them not to help
- Most used defoliant was Agent Orange, later found to cause cancer and birth defects

Low morale
- Failure of Search & Destroy: despite better firepower, couldn’t find the elusive enemy in the jungles due to their guerrilla tactics. Frustrated troops settled on searching out innocent villages and destroying those instead, called zippo raids
- Booby traps in the jungles were hidden well, forced US soldiers to pay attention to everything, slowing forces and degrading morale
- Body count often disappointingly low because communist troops tried hard to take their dead and wounded with them
- Fragging and drug-use was common within military; during 1970 and 1971 over 700 cases of fragging in the US army

Question 38

Two features of Hearts and Minds

Answer 38

Organised to win support of South Vietnamese people and lessen their desire to revolt
- Earlier programs weren’t really effective so the US thought of new ways to win the “hearts and minds” of the South
- CORDS programme: gathered and assessed intelligence to grow the People’s Self Defense Force militias in rural areas, resettled displaced Montagnard tribespeople and USAID brought modern healthcare to rural villages
- CAP (combined action programme): Organised by Marine Corps, soldiers gave school supplies, food and healthcare to some villages in SV

Wasn’t effective in winning much support
- SV thought Americans were “two-faced”: “handed out sodas during the day smiling but shooting Vietcong at night”. Search & destroy missions killing tons of people also garnered hatred
- Though the CORDS programme could offer some protection, couldn’t really convince the SVs to join the US’ side
- CORDS programme was thwarted by Tet offensive due to massive evacuation of rural areas and diversion of funds to counterattacks, but later regained momentum

Question 39

Two features of My Lai

Answer 39

(16 Mar 1968, Nov 1969 press got story)
Covered up by the government
- The operation was officially a success even though 347 men, women, children and babies were murdered, and some women had been raped first
- When American press got the story in November 1969, only Calley was charged with a life sentence, and was pardoned by Nixon after less than four years

Divided the United States
- Most defended Calley for defending his country, in telephone poll of 1000 only 7% agreed with his sentence
- Some complained that photographs of the dead taken by the army’s photographer were “rotten and anti-American”, showing how rotten the war was

Question 40

Two features of the Phoenix Programme

Answer 40

(1968-Dec 1972)
Crippled Vietcong infrastructure
- Set a target to “neutralise” 3000 suspects each month by arresting them and getting them to reveal other names
- In the next three years, secret South Vietnamese squads imprisoned 28,000 suspects, assassinated 20,000

Much more brutal
- Phoenix mandate went much further: authorised detention of communists, torture and assassination
- Many were noncommunist opponents of the South Vietnamese regime, and many were falsely accused by those who sought vengeance or money

Question 41

Two features of defoliation

Answer 41

Defoliation in the jungle
- Made it difficult to find Vietcong and traverse
- Caused many military failures for them in the past, such as Operation Rolling Thunder

Defoliation of crops
- Stopped guerrillas getting food, punished villages suspected of helping the communists
- Convinced villagers not to help, as they had to re-settle in new villages away from VC-controlled areas

Question 42

Two features of bombing

Answer 42

Innocent Vietnamese suffered
- Caused widespread damage to South Vietnam countryside, over 14 million tonnes used
- Destruction of farms and villages from bombs turned huge numbers of peasants homeless

Controversial in the US
- December 1966, Harrison Salisbury first American reporter permitted to North Vietnam, reported casualties and destruction to civilian areas
- US military always denied that their bombs hit civilian targets, and there weren’t many of them, lowering their credibility

Question 43

Two features/effects of the war in the US

Answer 43

American welfare suffered
- Cost of war too great to spend money on poverty, lack of medical care for poor, racial inequality
- Johnson’s ambitious “Great Society” Programme (in which the poor, and especially blacks, would receive decent welfare payments and decent homes) had to be abandoned, disappointing many

Avoided conflict for a long time
- For a long time the US was determined to avoid fighting another “Vietnam”
- Nixon Doctrine: refused to send troops into conflict that didn’t directly affect the United States’ own security
- As a result, they didn’t directly challenge the Soviet Union’s later actions in other countries such as Afghanistan and Angola

Question 44

Two features of university protests in the US

Answer 44

Draft dodging was a prominent method of protesting against the war
- Conscripted men were given draft cards; some publicly burnt them, others refused to report for training
- By the end of 1969 there were 34,000 draft-dodgers wanted. Many crossed the border to Canada to avoid arrest

Often turned violent
- May 1970 protest against US entering Cambodia at Kent State University, four students shot dead by National Guard soldiers
- Killings sparked even more backlash. ROTC facilities were attacked, and police and National Guard troops were dispatched to more than a hundred colleges

Question 45

Two features of opposition to war in USA

Answer 45

Draft dodging was a prominent method of protesting against the war
- Conscripted men (mostly students) were given draft cards; some publicly burnt them, others refused to report for training
- By the end of 1969 there were 34,000 draft-dodgers wanted. Many crossed the border to Canada to avoid arrest

Many student and university protests
- Many “We Won’t Go” groups formed at Cornell and other leading universities
- Often turned violent: May 1970 protest against US entering Cambodia at Kent State University, four students shot dead by National Guard soldiers

Question 46

Two features of pro-war demonstrations

Answer 46

Less popular than the anti-war movement
- General US public against the war, including Walter Cronkite, America’s most respected television journalist
- Less membership, protests often only in response to anti-war demonstrations, no real identity of their own
- Only 15,000 in a pro-war protest two weeks after the protest in Washington Apr 1971, where around 500,000 participated

Patriotism
- Believed war was necessary to protect American interests, saw themselves as the good guys fighting against communism
- Viewed opposition to the war as “rotten and anti-American”, 200 construction workers chanted “America, love it or leave it” in NYC on 8 May
- Sense of patriotism was often reinforced by the government and media, who portrayed the war as a moral crusade against a dangerous enemy

Question 47

Two features of the Fulbright Hearings (1971)

Answer 47

(1966-1971)
Marked the end of Fulbright’s influence with Johnson
- Fulbright initially endorsed and believed the alleged attack Johnson used to secure the Tonkin resolution, but his attitude changed as more intelligence emerged
- Realising he could not influence Johnson personally, he took the matter to public, which enraged Johnson as he viewed Fulbright’s behaviour as unpatriotic and disloyal
- He struck Fulbright from the White House invitation list, and they never had a personal relationship again

Helped turn popular public opinion against the war
- US began to have a conversation about Vietnam that they hadn’t had before
- Televised hearings gave antiwar movement a larger platform
- By Aug 1967, US public believed that the war was a mistake. The shift in opinion began with the hearings of Feb 1966