China

Question 1

Two causes of the Boxer Uprising

Answer 1

(Nov 2 1899–Sep 7 1901)
Resentment towards Imperials
- Qing dynasty came from Manchuria, which wasn’t part of China and seen as foreign, but the majority were Han
- In 1898, Emperor Guanxu tried to modernise the government through a policy of making concessions to foreigners
- The Boxers were mostly peasants who had suffered from natural disasters, and thought the concessions given to foreigners made their lives harder, leading to the uprising

Resentment towards Foreigners
- Brought religions and technologies to convert China’s economy and beliefs
- Regarded as foreign devils, as the Chinese were traditionally Buddhist and feared western technology (railways disturbed dragons and telegraph wires were poisonous)
- Led to the Boxer Uprising in 1899 in Shandong, where many foreigners and Chinese Christians were killed and churches and schools were burnt down

Question 2

Two causes of self-strengthening and reform

Answer 2

(1902-1911)
Save the reputation of the Imperials
- Before the Uprising, Cixi encouraged attacks on foreigners to avoid criticism of imperial rule. Opposing the “Hundred Days Reform”, she and her supporters seized control of the government and ended the reforms
- But the failure of her campaign proved that her support for the Boxers was a mistake, showing the people that the Qing dynasty could not free China from foreign control
- Little had been achieved in the late 19th century, so it was essential that reforms should be introduced and be successful

Wanted to re-establish China’s power
- Obliged to accept and make use of the foreigners’ presence
- Aimed to learn from them, copy their sciences and technology and apply it in exploiting China’s resources
- Established educational reforms, new naval and military academies, introduction of scholarships for students to study abroad, “new Army” under Manchu control in 1908, nationalisation of the railways

Question 3

Two causes of the 1911 Revolution

Answer 3

(9 Oct-12 Feb 1911)
Spread of revolutionary ideas
- Sun Yat-sen: Honolulu education, brought ideas nationalism + republicanism, Qing had to be overthrown for modernisation
- Failure of political reforms, introduced too little too late, and domination of Manchus in the new National Consultive Council increased Han resentment
- Made them more accepting of these ideas, they became very popular, especially in young Chinese men educated in Japan

Weak government
- November 1908, Guangxu and Cixi died, leaving Puyi, a 2-year-old, as the new emporer
- Prince Chun, Guangxu’s brother, ruled as regent and tried to save it through continuing reforms, but was too inexperienced
- Poor leadership led to more resentment, couldn’t fight back during the revolution

Question 4

Two causes of China under the Warlords

Answer 4

(Jun 1916-1928)
1911 Revolution
- Resentment towards Qing: reforms too little too late, came from Manchuria, let foreigners exploit China
- Young revolutionaries in Hankou exploded a bomb they were preparing for later use, providing the signal for a wider revolt
- Qing were overthrown, leaving space for new rulers

Yuan’s death
- Ruled as a dictator from 12-16, tried to be emperor in 15
- Died of stroke in June 1916, no other military general could rule with the same authority, central government collapsed
- Technically a republican government in Beijing, in practice power exercised by powerful local generals in their own provinces, who ran their own legal and financial systems and terrorised their populations

Question 5

Two causes of the May the Fourth Movement

Answer 5

(4 May, who would’ve guessed, 1919)
New Culture Movement
- Leaders believed traditional Confucian values were responsible for political weakness of the nation
- Rejection of traditional values, adoption of Western ideals “Mr. Science” and “Mr. Democracy” in place of “Mr. Confucius”
- Movement that erupted in 1919 was a show of youthful support for the New Culture Movement

Chinese nationalism
- Japan was to be given German possessions in the Shandong province under the terms of the Treaty of Versailles
- The treaty rewarded Japan with Chinese territory for their efforts in WW1, which went against self-determination
- On 4 May 1919, students from Beijing University called on the government to resist this humiliating treatment of China

Question 6

Two causes of the formation of the Guomindang

Answer 6

(1919)
Sun Yat-Sen
- Honolulu education, nationalism + republicanism HK , exiled after 1895 rebellion, travelled in Europe, Japan, USA, Canada
- Developed main three principles from time in West: national freedom, democracy principle and people’s welfare
- Set up own nationalist government in Guangzhou when returned to China in 1917, declared the formation of the nationalist party, the Guomindang (GMD), in 1919

Soviet influence from Bolshevik government
- Wanted to encourage revolution to protect border in China
- 1920s, convinced the best way was to work with the GMD: CCP too small to achieve revolution (only 50 when founded)
- Alfred Joffe organised negotiations, Mikhail Borodin reorganised it as a mass party with powerful central leadership, Borodin acquired arms to destroy the warlords, approved the appointment of Chiang Kai-shek as commander

Question 7

Two causes of the emergence of the Chinese Communist Party

Answer 7

(Jun 1921)
The May the Fourth movement
- Caused New Tide: humiliating treatment of China caused rejection of old ideas and adoption of modern beliefs
- Freedom, democracy + equal rights inspired revolutionary groups to achieve unity + independence for China
- Chen Duxui, a key member in the May the Fourth movement, was elected as general-secretary of the CCP

Communist revolution in Russia in 1917
- Similar, both politically and economically old-fashioned
- Communists believed that if Russia could achieve a successful revolution, so could they
- CCP founded in secret in girl’s school in Shanghai, June 1921

Question 8

Two causes of the formation of the United Front

Answer 8

(1923)
30th May Incident 1925
- Protest by workers in Shanghai was stopped by British commander from International Settlement shooting 12 people
- Confirmed for Nationalists and Communists that China’s enemies could only be removed by force
- Formed the United Front due to their shared goal to destroy the warlords

Soviet Influence
- Bolshevik government wanted to encourage spread of revolution and protect its border
- 20s, convinced the best way was to work with the GMD: CCP too small to achieve revolution (only 50 when founded)
- Encouraged CCP to work with GMD through Comintern to overthrow warlords, couldn’t refuse - funded $5000 USD yearly

Question 9

Two causes of the Northern Expedition

Answer 9

(9 July 1926-1928)
30th May Incident 1925
- Protest by workers in Shanghai was stopped by British commander from International Settlement shooting 12 people
- Confirmed for the Nationalists and Communists that China’s enemies could only be removed by force
- In 1926, Chiang called on its members in a speech to join in a battle to destroy the warlords, launching the expedition

Soviet influence from Bolshevik government
- Wanted to encourage revolution to protect its border in China
- Soviet government, through Comintern, encouraged the CCP to work with the GMD to overthrow the warlords
- CCP could not ignore Russia’s wishes, since it funded $5000 USD yearly, in 1923 CCP agreed to become a group within the GMD and work together to defeat the warlords

Question 10

Two causes of the Shanghai Massacres

Answer 10

(12 Apr 1927)
Chiang’s personal beliefs and ideology
- Born rich, GMD relied on businessmen for financial support
- Would never turn to the ideology of communism or its aim to overthrow capitalism
- Already suspicious of Communists from the start, believed they were an even greater threat than the warlords

Planning of communist uprisings by the CCP
- March 1927, protested against warlords, demanded return of Shanghai international settlements to Chinese control
- GMD occupied Shanghai as the communists’ general strike and left-wing uprisings weakened control of the city
- Convinced that the United Front had already won and served its purpose before the campaign succeeded, so 2 weeks later his troops killed more than 5000 communists

Question 11

Two causes of the Extermination Campaigns

Answer 11

(1930-34)
Chiang’s determination to destroy the Communists
- Born rich, GMD relied on businessmen for financial support,
- Already suspicious of Communists from the start, believed they were an even greater threat than the warlords
- Determined to surround them and completely wipe them out after Shanghai Massacres, leading to the five campaigns

Weak communists
- Mao + Communists did not follow orders from Comintern to continue United Front, staged Autumn Harvest Uprising in 27
- Army too small to take on the NRA, forced to flee to the mountains of Jiangxi province, set up a “Chinese Soviet Republic” (Jiangxi Soviet), to govern the province
- Chiang took advantage of this, and the communists spent the next 7 years in a struggle for survival against the GMD there

Question 12

Two causes of the Long March

Answer 12

(16 Oct 1934-Oct 1935)
Attacks from the GMD
- White Terror caused Communists to hide in Jingang Mountains, where they organised the Jingang Soviet
- Constantly attacked by GMD, as Chiang’s new German military advisers advised him to surround and push the Reds into smaller areas so they would lose access to resources, then use aerial bombing to attack enclosed forces. Many encirclement and suppression campaigns
- 16 Oct, 80,000 to 100,000 Communists broke out to march north to find a place of safety

Struggle for leadership in the communist party
- Mao advocated for guerrilla warfare and saw peasants as the force of revolution to overthrow the Nationalist government
- Wang Ming believed in traditional military campaigns, prioritising urban workers over the peasants, and cooperation with the Nationalist government
- When Mao’s faction gained control, they escaped the Nationalist attacks and went on the Long March to establish a new base in northern China

Question 13

Two causes of the survival of the Communists on the Long March

Answer 13

(16 Oct 1934-Oct 1935)
Mao’s tactics and leadership
- Took control of CCP after the meeting in Zunyi in Jan 1935
- Developed tactic of constantly changing directions and dividing the Red Army and then grouping together again
- Inspired the Communists into acts of bravery like crossing the Dadu River on a chain bridge, so 10,000 survived by the end

Respected peasants
- When entering villages, they did not attack, but made sure they were polite and did not steal anything
- Taught villages about communism, so villagers would support the CCP and not help the GMD hunt down Communists
- Helped the Communists survive and get to Yanan

Question 14

Two causes of the war with Japan

Answer 14

(1937-45)
Modernisation of Japan
- Late 19th and early 20th centuries, Japan had modernised its economy and military and become a strong power, as shown by its defeat of China in 1895
- 20s, economic growth slowed as it could not get raw materials, such as oil, that it needed to expand
- China had these raw materials, so Japan invaded Manchuria in 1931 and turned Puyi into its puppet-ruler. 1932, renamed the whole province to Manchuko

Chiang’s poor judgement
- Japan continued expanding 1931-37, but Chiang let them take it as he didn’t think they could occupy a country so large
- Also saw the communists as more of a threat than Japan
- Made him unpopular and could not be continued when the Japanese began their full-scale occupation
- Therefore, at the behest of the warlords, in 1936 Chiang formed a second United Front between the GMD & CCP, as they had similar goals and in July 1937, Chiang declared that China was at war with Japan

Question 15

The role of the CCP and the Red Army in the war with Japan

Answer 15

• Chiang was recognised as leader of China, and the CCP joined the United Front knowing Chiang was in charge
• CCP was still very strong, with membership growing from 40 thousand in 37 to 1.2 million members in 1945
• Mostly due to policies in implemented in Yanan Soviet, such as the Red Army treating peasants with respect and insisting landlords shouldn’t be the enemy, instead implementing rent control. Peasants informed them about the position of the Japanese, and provided them with food & shelter
• Red Army launched a ‘100 Regiments Offensive’ in 1940, which was a successful attack against the Japanese. They captured Japanese soldiers, destroyed rails and resisted a counter campaign from the Japanese. This increased their support as the communists appeared much more determined to defeat Japan than the GMD
• The Red Army used guerrilla tactics against the Japanese, ambushing them and attack weak points in defences. More successful than fighting pitched battles in the cities, so much so that Mao claimed it was a great success. He said the communists saved China from Japan with it, which was clearly propaganda, but it did attract support

Question 16

Two causes of the limitations of the Guomindang

Answer 16

Chiang’s lack of focus on the Japanese
- Persisted in seeing the communists as the real enemy
- 1941, ordered an attack on the communists despite the co-operation of the United Front, wasting resources for the war
- 1944, Japan launched a new attack, but Chiang was busy besieging the Communists in Yanan, despite the US’ advice

Unpopularity
- GMD government was dishonest. Economic policies imposed high taxes and allowed some to get richer through storing up goods for their own personal use and buying and selling goods on the black market, while others suffered
- Soldiers lacked the will to fight and loyalty to the GMD cause due to forced recruiting and tough discipline
- Unlike the communists, GMD forces treated peasants badly, making the communists more popular

Question 17

Two causes of the Civil War

Answer 17

(1946–49)
Ending of WW2
- Atomic bombs on Japan before GMD or CCP were ready
- Nationalists held large area in southern and central China, Communists controlled northern and north-eastern countryside from their base in Yanan
- As the Japanese retreated from occupied territory in north + centre, both sides tried to occupy as much territory as possible, even as the SU sent its Red Army into Manchuria in 45 trying to take control of that region

Chiang saw communism as the enemy
- Jan 1941, Chiang ordered forces to attack Communists in spite of the co-operation promised in the United Front
- Americans tried to persuade them to agree to stop fighting, but when Chiang tried to set up a new government which gave almost total control to GMD, the Communists left the talks
- By December 1945, both sides were at war, by July 1946, clear that there was no chance of a negotiated agreement

Question 18

Two causes of the Battle of Huai-Hai

Answer 18

(Nov 1948-Jan 1949)
Chiang’s determination to stop communism
- Born rich, GMD relied on businessmen for financial support, believed they were a threat, did not agree with their ideology
- Had already lost control of northern China, determined to prevent communism from spreading to the rest of China
- Made a stand at Xuzhou, key site on Longhai railway linking central China to the GMD’s capital Nanjing and the port of Shanghai, led to them being surrounded and a 2-month battle

Essential for communist victory
- After fall of Jinan to Communists on 24 Sep 48, PLA planned for larger campaign to engage remaining Nationalist forces in the Shandong province and their main force in Xuzhou

Question 19

Two causes of Chiang’s loss in the Battle of Huai-Hai

Answer 19

(Nov 1948-Jan 1949)
Poor Army Strength
- NRA lacked aircraft to protect its forces, PLA destroyed the surrounding area so the NRA couldn’t feed troops
- Poor conditions for soldiers caused many to abandon the NRA and go to the PLA
- Chiang refused to let people retreat, causing 200,000 to die

American Abandonment
- The GMD was very reliant on America to fund their military
- After watching the GMD’s poor war effort, the US stopped giving the GMD any more funding as they believed Chiang had wasted the $3 billion USD wasted
- Without this funding, Chiang had no chance of victory

Question 20

Causes of the success of Mao and the CCP in the Civil War

Answer 20

(1946–49)
Military strategy
- Mao worked well with his generals, PLA could act quickly
- Chiang disagreed with some generals, military confusion
- Guerrilla tactics preserved PLA in mountains and minimised GMD strengths, once the GMD was weakened, used conventional warfare in attacking in pitched battles in cities

Political
- Strength from political unity, Mao’s leadership was unchallenged, secure chain of command prevented disputes; GMD government corrupt and unskilled
- Local populations involved in discussions of reforms gave positive impression; Chiang set up a dictatorship, favoured bankers, merchants and landlords
- Propaganda: posters spread key messages, PLA troops indoctrinated with communist ideas won over local populations by treating peasants kindly; Chiang promised Sun’s “Three Principles of the People” but never delivered

Economic
- Chiang had printed money to finance his government, leading to a high inflation which destroyed the savings of the middle class, whom he relied on for support
- Introduced reforms to reissue the currency, introduce wage controls and new taxes, but it was too little too late
- No more support since he never won over the peasants

Peasant support
- Peasants wanted land, CCP gave; GMD blocked land reform
- Peasants fed PLA, transported supplies and fought alongside
- Mao speed up land reform and made sure the
PLA treated peasants well

Question 21

Two causes of the first Five-year Plan

Answer 21

(1953-57)
Korean War
- Leaders worried about invasion, needed stronger military
- Before Mao’s vision was for gradual development of industry, but CCP decided to prioritise economic development
- 1953, People’s Daily echoed Mao “only with industrialisation of the state may we guarantee our economic independence and non-reliance on imperialism”

The success of Soviet industrialisation
- In 20 years, Soviet five-year plans had transformed a peasant country into an industrial power
- Demonstrated that industrialisation could be achieved through a communist system and central planning
- Hundreds of Soviet advisers were welcomed to China to provide knowledge and expertise needed to launch the plan

Question 22

Two causes of the attack on landlords

Answer 22

Mao’s encouragement
- Had identified achievement of a communist system depended on support of peasants, aka the majority
- In soviet at Yanan, ordered that peasants should be respected, richer peasants treated with moderation, attacks should be targeted on larger landlords who bullied peasants
- Passed Agrarian Reform Law in 50: property of landlords was redistributed to peasants and property of enemies of the state, such as Chiang and foreign nationals, were confiscated

Resentment of villagers
- Landlords had unfair power over peasants
- CCP members sent to countryside to organise peasants against landlords and encourage mass meetings where landowners were denounced (Speak Bitterness Campaigns)
- Many settled old disputes, violently denouncing landlords. By 52 two and three quarter million landlords had been killed

Question 23

Two causes of the Agrarian Reform Law

Answer 23

(1950)
Mao’s desire to win peasant support
- Had identified achievement of a communist system depended on support of peasants, aka the majority
- In soviet at Yanan, ordered that peasants should be respected, richer peasants treated with moderation, attacks should be targeted on larger landlords who bullied peasants
- Passed Agrarian Reform Law in 50: property of landlords was redistributed to peasants and property of enemies of the state, such as Chiang and foreign nationals, were confiscated

Mao’s desire for industrialisation
- Convinced peasants must drive the communist revolution and transition to socialism
- Letting peasants own their own land would set rural productive forces free, develop agricultural production, and pave the way for new China’s industrialisation
- Abolished feudal exploitation by landlord class, introduced system of peasant land ownership

Question 24

Two causes of the collectivisation of agriculture

Answer 24

Mao wanted to modernise China quickly
- China’s economy had been shambled after decades of foreign imperialism, economic separation and civil war
- Mao aimed to industrialise China quickly and this required there to be enough agricultural export
- APCs established to create large communes of collective farms
- More than 700 million people placed in collective farms, allowing for the intensification of collectivisation in 1956 and after the introduction of the Great Leap Forward

To further extend communism into rural China
- Mao identified that the achievement of a communist system depended on support of the peasants (most lived in rural areas)
- After landlords were removed, peasants were encouraged to work in mutual aid teams which were merged into APCs, then collectives
- Meant that there was no private ownership, which made economy more socialist
- Strengthened hold of party over all of China

Question 25

Changes in the role of women under Mao

Answer 25

Women were treated as second class citizens and property to their husbands, then sons. Girls received little education
Needed to end unequal treatment of women and integrate them into modern day society for a communist society

1950 Marriage Law
Banned arranged marriages & dowries, raised minimum age of marriage: girls often pushed into them as teens, potential husbands were paid dowry, only cared for husband’s parents
Rights to divorce and to own property
Made infanticide illegal: Birth of sons celebrated, but daughters were costly, often leading to female infanticide

CCP
Introduced policies to transform the role of women in the family, especially in rural areas. Promoted birth control and trained midwives to make childbirth safer
Collectivisation provided mess halls for communal eating, reducing tasks at home and letting women contribute more to the economic life
Electorial Act of 1953: women given given equal voting rights (CCP was keen on getting women involved in political life)
All China Women’s Federation sent officials to rural areas in 1949, encouraged women to participate in politics at local levels by joining committees and party groups

Question 26

Reactions to changes in the role of women under Mao

Answer 26

Marriage: Peasants opposed the Marriage Law, especially in the western areas where there was a large Muslim population. Matchmakers and rural marriages with the exchange of gifts continued. Women who divorced their husbands were outcasted.
The average age of marriage rose in the 1950s and cases of infanticide were reduced.

Family life: Resistance to birth control in rural areas.
In 1954, China’s biggest pharmaceutical company began producing contraceptives. Childbirth became safer with trained midwives and procedures such as sterilisation

Economic role: Property rights did not last long; private property was outlawed in the campaign for collectivisation. Husbands sold wives during the famine.
Literacy levels among women rose, and the proportion of women in the workforce rose from 8% in 49 to 29% by mid-60s

Political role: Participation was opposed by men but there was some acceptance that women could hold minor roles.
1949, 69 women elected to Central People’s Political Consultative Committee, 10% of its membership. 1953 election to National People’s Congress, 12% deputies elected were women. The first Minister of Health and Minister of Justice in the PRC were women. Between 49-62, women’s participation in politics increased, with women being elected to neighbourhood committees and co-operatives.

Question 27

Changes in politics under Mao

Answer 27

The victory of the Communists brought in a new government, led by Mao, and China became democratic in theory
Every adult could vote, elections were held in towns and villages, and it was claimed that the people had the power
But the Communist party was actually the only party allowed, and its leading members held key positions in the new republic
The Politburo, an organisation of leading members of the CCP controlled by Mao, carried out the government
Due to Mao’s suspicion and power, people with opposing ideas were usually not given positions in the government
Political system was based on “Mao Zedong Thought”, which included ideas of class struggle and the need for revolution to prevent counter-revolutionary ideas
Mao believed in the mass organisation of ordinary people to drive revolution, promoting the slogan “self-reliance” to show that China was an independent communist country

Chairman Mao: Head of the CCP and State
Politburo: Carried out the government of China under the authority of Mao. Committee of five leading members of the CCP (Mao, Liu Shaoqi, Zhou Enlai, Zhu De, Chen Yun)
Central Committee of the Party (44 members of CCP), State Council of the National Government (headed by the premier, Zhou Enlai), the PLA (headed by Zhu De)
National Government (24 ministries)
Provincial Governments (6 regional governments)

Question 28

Two causes of the Thought Reform/Three-anti/Five-anti Campaigns

Answer 28

(Thought Reform: Sep 1951
Three-anti Campaign: 1951
Five-anti Campaign: 1952)
To reinstate the CCP’s authority against intellectuals
- Not convinced CCP had total control, suspicious of intellectuals with differing opinions, especially those who had been educated abroad/party members
- Mass meetings: encouraged loyal citizens to guilty denounce officials/employees, had to make public confessions and were punished by fines or sent to labour camps
- Humiliation of being denounced in these mass meetings increased fear of going against the party

To combat potential capitalist ideas
- Thought party members might secretly support capitalism
- Wanted to bring an end to bribery, tax avoidance, theft of state property, fraud and industrial sabotage, aimed to take down bureaucrats’ corruption waste & inefficiency
- By 51, GMD supporters had been sent to re-education camps, people had to register in a region and gain permission to move

Question 29

Two causes of the Hundred Flowers Campaign

Answer 29

(1957)
Khrushchev’s criticism
- Speech in 1956 criticised Stalin’s use of terror against Communist members, encouraging a more liberal approach
- Had criticised the Cult of Stalin, and such criticisms could also be directed at the Cult of Mao
- Early 57, announced that people were to “let a hundred flowers bloom”, encouraging free speech, calling on intellectuals and artists to criticse the government

Domestic criticism of CCP
- Believed in mobilising masses, desired to listen to the grievances of ordinary people
- Series of strikes throughout 1956, workers demanding better pay, suggesting CCP officials were misbehaving and serving their own interests rather than those of the people
- Feared CCP was becoming inefficient and corrupt. In danger of being an out-of-touch, privileged elite and a barrier to further developments - wanted this reformed through criticism

Question 30

Two causes of the Great Leap Forward

Answer 30

(May 1958-62)
Mao’s faith in communism
- Convinced that communism was better - proven by SU’s success in lunching the first satellite into space
- China could “leap” from rural economy to industrial one without disadvantages that affected capitalist countries
- Believed that anything could be achieved by PRC if it had the will to succeed

Mao wanted independence from Soviet Union
- Economic aid from SU had been valuable at beginning of China’s modernisation programme
- 1958, SU had sent more than 10,000 advisers to China, as well as training Chinese technicians, causing rapid industrialisation
- Worsening tensions once Khrushchev denounced Stalin in 1956
- “Walking on two legs”: rapid industralisation of Great Leap Forward, collectivisation of agriculture would provide sufficient food to feed expanding workforce and sell abroad for machinery

Question 31

Two causes (and Mao’s motives) of the Cultural Revolution

Answer 31

(1966-76)
Prevent the revolution from being weakened by revisionists
- Opposed measures adopted after fail of Great Leap Forward
- Suspicious that Liu + Deng encouraged private trade and ownership as capitalist sympathisers, believed there were revisionists in all areas of art, education and culture
- Cultural Revolution gave him opportunity to remove them

Provide a test for young people
- Believed that the strength of the CCP came from its years of struggle (Long March, war against Japan, Civil War)
- Young communists had no such experience, believed they needed to be involved in struggle to identify with revolution
- 16 Jul, launched the revolution with his much-advertised swim across the Yangtze River, which meant that his exile was over

Question 32

Causes of the Red Guard

Answer 32

(May 1966-1969)
Mass mobilisation
- Cultural Revolution meant as a test for young people, provided struggles so they could become true revolutionaries
- Young people encouraged to attack authority and regard rebellion as a positive force for good, attack Four Olds
- Term “Red Guard” first used in May 1966 when students and schoolchildren formed themselves into units to carry out Mao’s instructions to attack opponents of the revolution

Opportunity to compensate from “bad class” background
- Wanted to prove their loyalty, chance to improve employment prospects by forging strong connections with members of the party
- Red Guards allowed to travel for free on railways: chance to travel around China for free
- They were now the ones with power, could get revenge on those who hurt them in the past

Official approval
- Though members often chose their own victims, some were directed by CCRG, especially Jiang Qing
- Mao did not stop the violence, long as it was effective in removing opponents

Question 33

Two causes of the “cult of Mao”

Answer 33

Indoctrination of young people
- Brought up to regard Mao as a god, the great hero who had saved China from foreign domestication with communism
- Cultural Revolution meant as a test for young people, who were given the task of saving revolution from revisionists with unquestioning obedience, mass mobilisation
- Mao held extraordinary degree of power over young people, many eager to prove themselves and devote themselves to him

Little Red Book
- In 1964, Lin Biao organised publication of a collection of Mao’s well-known sayings for the PLA
- As Liu Xiaoqing said, believed to have an almost religious power, many believed it could work miracles - accounts of blind being able to see and disabled being able to walk
- Caused even more Mao fanatics

Question 34

Two causes of the Sino-Soviet split

Answer 34

(1962)
Mao believed that China needed to be independent
- Economic aid from SU had been valuable at beginning of China’s modernisation programme
- 1958, SU had sent more than 10,000 advisers to China, as well as training Chinese technicians, causing rapid industrialisation
- In late 1950s, announced that China needed to be independent in economic development: “walking on two legs”

Worsening tensions
- Mao had always been sus as the SU had originally supported the GMD, despite knowing it would be useful for China to work with the strongest communist power
- Worsening tensions once Khrushchev denounced Stalin in 1956, early 1960s Mao accused the SU of being revisionist for developing friendly relations with USA, while Khrushchev criticised Great Leap Forward
- Final split in 1962, Mao used Cuban Missile Crisis to accuse Khrushchev of cowardice, while Khrushchev claimed that Mao’s policies would lead to nuclear war

Question 35

Two causes of the rise of the “Gang of Four”

Answer 35

(1973-76)
Prominent roles in the Cultural Revolution
- Yao, Zhang, and Jiang wrote “On the New Historical Drama Hai Rui Dismissed from Office”, initiating the Cultural Revolution
- Zhang was a member of Cultural Revolution Group; Jiang’s power came from her role as the “purifier of culture”
- These roles let them become important figures as Mao neared the end of his life and the struggle for power began

Launch of the anti-Confuscious campaign
- Seemed like a campaign against revisionists and promoting communism on the outside
- Actually an attack on Zhou Enlai and Deng Xiaoping, as the Gang was afraid they might become leader after Mao’s death
- 1976, told Mao that Deng was a “capitalist-roader” - Deng removed from posts, Zhou Enlai died in Jan 1976

Question 36

Two causes of the fall of the “Gang of Four”

Answer 36

(1976)
Unpopularity
- 1976, Mao listened to their criticisms - Deng removed from posts, and Zhou Enlai died in Jan 1976
- Thought they would take control after Mao’s death, but he promoted Hua Guofeng to premier of PRC and vice-chairman
- Hua had more support from military officials and the Politiburo, whereas the majority had objected to Jiang’s behaviour during the Cultural Revolution

Long list of crimes
- Put on trial from 80-81, accused of attempting to overthrow the communist state. 66, planned to use Red Guard to remove Liu and Deng, telling Mao Zhou and Deng planned to take power from him, fearing Mao would bring Deng back from exile, causing them to lose power
- Punished and tortured opponents - Jiang accused of torturing artists who did not agree with her ideas on culture
- All members found guilty, Jiang and Zhang death sentences

Question 37

Changes under Deng in education

Answer 37

Development of a highly educated workforce was one of the key elements in Deng’s modernisation programme, which meant a new approach to education
Reforms introduced in the 50s were undone by the Cultural Revolution, by 79 less than 6% were educated to degree level
1978 policy: reintroduced university exams, allowed private universities, Chinese students encouraged to travel to the West for Uni, reopened research institutes closed after the Cultural Revolution, and reinstated technical staff
Aimed to train a million technical students, who would use their skills to modernise China’s industries, abroad students bring back Western technology and methods of manufacture

Question 38

Changes under Deng in birth control

Answer 38

By 79, the population had grown to ~974 million, so there were fears it would be impossible for economic policies to provide enough resources
CCP introduced “one-child” policy to limit population expansion and reduce it in size. New Marriage Law: minimum age for marriage at 22 (men), 20 (women); only one child; financial penalties for going over
Needed permits to give birth, state could order late-term abortions/sterilisations for women with a child
At first the policy was applied in towns; second children allowed to peasants if there was an age gap of 5 years
Increase in female infanticide: peasant families continued to value boys more as girls could do less heavy work and married outside of the family, while a male child had to look after his parents in their old age
Caused a gender imbalance in younger population: by 85, there were 114 boys born to every 100 girls
One-child policy enforced by propaganda campaigns, “struggle sessions” against parents of more than one child and compulsory fitting of contraceptive devices
Couples with one child were rewarded with cash bonuses, extra rations, better health care and education, which was taken away from those who did not follow the policy
Slowed down the growth of China’s population

Question 39

Changes under Deng in agriculture

Answer 39

Mao’s reform: removed oppressive landlords of imperial and nationalist eras, but without a profit motive, communes only produced what they needed to feed their members
Farmers could concentrate on growing the type of crop that grew best in the area, instead of rice and wheat under Mao
Replaced communes with the xiang (original village), land rented to farmers by government
“Household responsibility system”: quota of produce to supply to the state, extra could be sold: became popular as farmers were rewarded for work + skill, provided missing incentive, increased agricultural production, by 84 98% were part of it

Question 40

Changes under Deng in industry

Answer 40

Believed capitalist practices would benefit the economy, such as allowing private profit and foreign investors
Did not abandon central planning, kept state-owned enterprises (SOEs), but gave managers more freedom in targets and profits
Open door policy: encouraged competition with foreign companies to help Chinese businesses produce goods of higher quality, not just cheaper. Foreign investors in export industries were so successful that in 84 Deng extended it to home industries, especially high tech industries
Special Economic Zones (SEZs) in coastal areas where they could access the market in HK or Taiwan
By 90s, export trade had grown by 500% (exporters got special tax concessions and freedom from financial restrictions)
Deng was impressed by the new, young managerial class that took advantage of the freedoms in the economic system, letting them introduce incentives such as bonuses to workers
Some workers in SOEs were upset as they used to be guaranteed a wage regardless of output, and knew they could feed their family - “Iron Rice Bowl”, but now incomes were based on performance (Deng reduced the subsidies to SOEs as they were supposed to make a profit and fund themselves)
Workers resisted the new demands - only in 86 a new working contract based on performance was introduced, which only applied to new workers, so progress was inefficient in SOEs

Question 41

Two causes of Deng’s opposition to political reform

Answer 41

Economic development
- Prioritised modernising the economy, developing trade with the ouside world, and encouraging foreign investment to catch up with other developed countries
- Introduced changes and capitalist practices like allowing private profit and foreign investors (“It does not matter whether a cat is black or white so long as it catches mice”)
- Would have been seen as revisionist under Mao, so even more change in politics could hinder economic progress by creating uncertainty and instability

Wanted to maintain strict Communism
- Faithful to Marxist-Leninist ideas and Mao Zedong Thought, remained a hard-line communist in politics. Maintained four principals about how China should be governed
- CCP would keep leading role, rejected multi-party system, no free elections, no freedom of speech
- In following these principles, he firmly rejected democracy
- Supported in opposition by older, more conservative members of the CCP

Question 42

Two causes of the emergence of privatisation and westernisation

Answer 42

Changes in economic policies
- Deng believed in the saying “it does not matter whether a cat is black or white so long as it catches mice”
- Believed that China’s economy would benefit from capitalist practices (private profit, co-operating with foreign investors)
- Adopted open door policy for trade, encouraged competition with foreign companies to help Chinese businesses produce higher quality goods, not just cheaper than Western goods

Changes in education
- Development of a highly educated workforce was one of the key elements in Deng’s modernisation programme
- From 1978, a policy was put into action, including encouraging Chinese students to travel to West for University
- Western influences (hairstyles, clothes, music) were brought back to China via returning students and businessmen

Question 43

Two causes of Democracy Movement/”Democracy Wall” movement

Answer 43

(1979)
Wei Jingsheng’s arrest
- 1979, the former Red Guard pinned to the wall his criticisms of the government’s failure to allow democratic freedoms and accused the party of acting like the Qing dynasty
- Arrested and sentenced to 15 years in prison, made the CCP seem like it didn’t allow criticism
- His brave stand inspired other activists to call for democracy

Lack of political reforms
- Deng only introduced changes in the economy, but remained a hard-line Communist in politics
- Many intellectuals and students had experienced Western ideas of liberal politics when studying abroad
- Called for political reforms to match the economic modernisation, wanting to end corruption and for the party to honour its claims that it represented the will of the people

Question 44

Two causes of support of university
students in the Democracy Movement

Answer 44

(1985-86)
Economic conditions
- Initial protest in Beijing caused by students’ poor living conditions and the high rents caused by the economic reforms
- Blamed poor job prospects on the party, saying it gave better treatment in employment to family members and friends instead of hiring on merit
- Problems were reflected in wider unrest and discontent expressed by workers by strikes

Lack of political reforms
- Deng only introduced changes in the economy, but remained a hard-line Communist in politics
- Many intellectuals and students had experienced Western ideas of liberal politics when studying abroad
- Angry that the government placed controls on what they were allowed to study and which books they could read
- Came to believe CCP was corrupt, called for introduction of democracy and free speech using big character posters

Question 45

Reaction of Deng to the protests of 1986

Answer 45

• Deng originally approved of the Democracy Wall, as his supporters pinned notes supporting him and criticising his opponents during the power struggle
• His desire to maintain strict Communism was challenged when the wall was used to express anti-government feelings
• Traditionalist members in the CCP were angered
• Hu Yaobang, the general secretary, was sacked when he seemed to show sympathy for the students by criticising the slow pace of reform. This showed that Deng sided with the hard-line conservatives
• Censorship was tightened further, and Deng ordered the arrest of the leaders whom he blamed for the unrest
• Deng announced that China did not need democracy. because the people had an enlightened government to rule for them, which ended the protests but created resentment

Question 46

Two causes of Tiananmen Square

Answer 46

(Apr-4 Jun 1989)
Hu Yaobang’s heart attack
- Hu Yaobang, the general secretary, was sacked when he seemed to show sympathy for the students by criticising the slow pace of reform
- Students, remembering this, gathered in large numbers in Tiananmen Square to express sadness about his death
- Numbers grew further when the Premier Li Peng refused to accept a petition asking for greater freedoms

Resentment towards Deng
- Deng only introduced changes in the economy, but remained a hard-line Communist in politics
- Many students and intellectuals came to believe CCP was corrupt, calling for introduction of democracy and free speech using big character posters in 1986
- Deng’s repression and tough approach ended the protests, but didn’t address concerns of peasants and workers