Civil Rights

Question 1

Effect of the Cold War on the USA

Answer 1

Increased US public’s fear towards communism
- Lingering fear from Russian Revolution of 1917 that immigrants from Eastern Europe would try to convert the US government and the rest of the world to communism
- SU set up communist governments in some liberated countries after WW2, seemed like they were taking over
- After the US dropped two atomic bombs on Japan, the SU started developing its own and tested it in Aug 1949. The USA was afraid that their biggest enemy had this weapon
- Events of 1949-50 convinced many Americans, including the government, that the SU wanted world domination

Question 2

Two effects of the Hiss case

Answer 2

(Date: 1949)
Increased fear of communism
- 1948, named as a communist member in a HUAC hearing, Nixon insisted that he had been leaking info after his denial
- Though he was never convicted of spying, many people thought he was one, because he had been sent to prison
- It was during Hiss’ trial that news arrived of the Soviet Union’s successful testing of an atomic bomb, timing increased fear

Weakened trust in government
- Hoover believed spies working within Federal government departments was a serious threat, and wrote to Truman
- Hiss was a member of the State Department, had been an important adviser to Roosevelt in the 1930s and during WW2
- The presence of a supposed spy at the highest level of government seemed to prove Hoover right, and that even the government was not immune to communist spies

Question 3

Two effects of the Rosenberg cases

Answer 3

(Date: March 1951)
Increased paranoia and hysteria
- Fuchs, arrested in Britain, named other spies, including Greenglass, arrested in the USA, who named the Rosenbergs
- All of these spies being revealed one after the other made it seem like there was a never-ending chain
- Made Americans worry that communist spies were everywhere

Emphasised the threat of communism
- Despite the Rosenbergs denying all charges and the weak evidence, they were found guilty and executed on 19 June 1953
- Brutal decision sparked some protests, but showed how far the government would go to crack down on communism
- Highlighted how much of a danger to the USA the government saw communism as

Question 4

Two effects of the Hollywood Ten

Answer 4

(Date: Oct 1947)
Increased paranoia and hysteria
- There was a concern that communists would try to use the film industry to spread propaganda
- 19 out of the 41 HUAC called for questioning were named as communists, imprisonment and blacklisting of the Hollywood Ten only confirmed to the public that they were guilty
- Film makers increased production of anti-communist films to avoid allegations, which exacerbated the hysteria

Attracted publicity to HUAC’s work
- Millions of people went to cinemas, so investigating Hollywood drew a lot of attention
- Most of the accused were prominent members of the film industry (e.g. Dalton Trumbo)
- Hollywood Ten refused to answer any questions and pleaded the First Amendment of the US Constitution. They were jailed for 1 year for contempt and were blacklisted, which attracted a lot of publicity

Question 5

Two effects of the FBI’s and HUAC’s work

Answer 5

(Date: ~1940-50)
Loss of government officials
- Hoover believed spies working within Federal government departments was a serious threat, and wrote to Truman
- Mar 1947, Truman allowed government employees to be removed from their posts if there were “reasonable grounds” to believe they were disloyal to the US
- Set up Federal Loyalty Boards, between 1947 and 1951, around 3 million were investigated and up to 3,000 people were fired or forced to resign

Increased paranoia
- Number of prosecutions and public nature of HUAC’s hearings increased publicity
- Often little evidence, so there were likely not as many communists as people thought, but this made Americans worry that communists were everywhere
- Hysteria made the public more likely to accuse others despite weak evidence, creating a loop of worsening paranoia

Question 6

Reasons for McCarthy’s downfall

Answer 6

(Date: 1953-54)
Increasingly extreme accusations
- Accused popular war general George Marshall of helping the “Communist drive for world domination” through the Marshall Plan and his failure to prevent the communist victory in China
- Nobody was ever convicted of spying based on his work

Bullying
- Spring 1954, televised Army-McCarthy hearings began, and the American public could see McCarthy at work for the first time. They were shocked by his bullying
- The army found evidence of McCarthy abusing his privileges
as a member of Congress and sending this to reporters who were known to be critical of McCarthy
- More anti-McCarthy material appeared in the press. On 9 March, Ed Murrow broadcast an entire episode of his See It Now show on McCarthy, using video footage of McCarthy’s speeches and actions to criticise him

On 2 December 1954, the Senate formally condemned Joseph McCarthy for improper conduct by 67 votes to 22

Question 7

Two effects of McCarthyism

Answer 7

(Date: ~1950-1954)
Increased hysteria
- After the Hiss trial, Feb 1950, made a speech claiming to have a list of 205 communists in the US State Department
- Fabricated evidence, bullied suspects, accused opposition of being “soft of communism” or communists themselves, so there were likely fewer communists than he made it out to be
- Made Americans worry that communists were everywhere, became more intolerant of radical or even different ideas

Ruined thousands of lives
- Millions attended McCarthy’s speeches and watched his television appearances, because his accusations explained why the Korean War and Cold War were not going well for the USA
- Popularity meant that just being called by him for questioning ended people’s careers as others assumed they were guilty
- Thousands of careers and lives were damaged by McCarthy’s allegations, affecting companies and institutions

Question 8

Two effects of Brown vs Board of Education of Topeka

Answer 8

(Date: 1951-17 May 1954)
Broke legal precedent for Plessy versus Ferguson
- State government spend over four times more money on white schools to reinforce segregation - an area civil rights groups could attack the “separate but equal” principle of PvF
- Led to Thurgood Marshall arguing that separate schools caused psychological damage through the Doll Test, showing that black children developed self-hatred
- Showed that separate but equal was not realistic, breaking the legal precedent for Plessy versus Ferguson

Intensified racism and segregation
- Black pupils and families were exposed to more anger in integrated schools (like the Little Rock nine)
- “White flight”: white people left areas with lots of black people, so segregation became even more intense
- Caused the establishment of WCCs and resurgence of KKK

Question 9

Two effects of the death of Emmett Till

Answer 9

(Date: Aug 1955)
Spread awareness
- Roy Bryant and his half brother brutally beat, shot, and disposed of Till’s body after Carolyn Bryant claimed he had flirted with her
- Open casket funeral in Chicago, thousands could witness the grotesque effects of his lynching with their own eyes, deformed face published at the front in the Time magazine
- Exposed Northerners to the intense racism in the South, leading to increased sympathy and increased membership of organisations like CORE

Galvanised African Americans to protest
- Many young AAs identified with Emmett Till and were shocked that the murderers were not proclaimed guilty
- Showed them that action had to be taken; many of them went on to participate in the Montgomery Bus Boycott and March on Washington
- Rosa Parks even said that one of the reasons she refused to give up her seat was the memory of Emmett Till

Question 10

Two effects of the Montgomery Bus Boycott

Answer 10

(Date: 1955-56)
Started the banning of segregation
- Boycott lasted for 13 months, MIA organised car-pooling systems and bought shoes for people
- Caused financial harm to the bus company - revenue went down by 65%, estimated loss of $1 million
- 5 June, three judges in the Browder versus Gayle case ruled that buses should be desegregated because the Brown versus Topeka decision should be applied to transport as well as education. Supreme Court agreed
- After the boycott, buses in Montgomery and public transport in other areas were eventually integrated

Raised awareness
- MLK was the chairman of the MIA (major organisation of the boycott) and one of the main faces. Motivated AAs to keep going and boosted morale, eloquence attracted lots of attention and brought him to forefront
- 22 February, ~90 leading members of MIA, including King and Parks, were arrested. All were found guilty, but the trial gave the MIA an opportunity to show evidence of the abuses of white bus drivers, which gave the trial and the boycott even more publicity
- Visible form of protest with huge impact, so it drew a lot of attention

Question 11

Two effects of Little Rock

Answer 11

(Date: 1957)
Showed that winning battles in the Supreme Court was not enough
- Governor Faubus resisted desegregation of schools and called in state troops to prevent the Little Rock Nine from entering the school, claiming it was for their own protection
- Effects of Brown Versus Topeka were not immediate, wouldn’t follow orders to desegregate schools quickly
- Showed civil rights campaigners that other actions needed to be taken as well

Garnered international media attention
- Little Rock Nine were constantly harassed by mobs of angry white people when they tried to enter the school
- Governor Faubus backed the mobs as he ordered state troops to block the Nine from entering the school
- A riot erupted when the police allowed the Nine to enter the school
- Eisenhower had to sign a presidental order that sent 1,200 Federal troops to Little Rock in order to maintain peace
- Backlash and discrimination was publicised internationally
- USA seemed hypocritical for criticising other countries’ civil rights

Question 12

Two effects of the Civil Rights Act, 1957

Answer 12

(Date: 9 Sep 1957)
Instilled hope
- First time in 82 years that the Federal Government had acted to try to improve the civil rights of African Americans
- US Commission on Civil Rights was set up, began investigating how black people were prevented from voting
- Allowed Federal Courts to prosecute states who tried to prevent people from voting
- Showed that the Federal Government was willing to do something

Motivated Civil Rights campaigners to protest more
- Civil rights activists were disappointed that the act didn’t go as far as they wanted
- African-Americans were still prohibited from voting as Federal Courts consisted of white, racist men who opposed to increasing their civil rights
- Became more determined to fight for further reform, and protests became more widespread in the 1960s
- Would later lead to the Civil Rights Act of 1964 and the Voting Rights Act of 1965, which allowed for black people to vote and for voting registration to be fair

Question 13

Two effects of the revival of the Ku Klux Klan

Answer 13

(Date: ~1950-60s)
Increased violence against African Americans
- Terrorised black citizens by burning crosses in front of civil rights leaders’ houses and beating and lynching AAs
- As the Civil Rights movement gained traction in the 60s, became increasingly violent in order to stop the protests
- Firebombed MLK’s house and started to shoot blacks and all protestors, including those who were white

Brought awareness to civil rights protests
- Extreme violence attracted media attention, which let Americans see the extent of racism (especially in Deep South)
- 1961 Anniston Fire Bombing, KKK attacked buses and beat protestors inside, firebomb thrown into the first bus
- Over 300 riders were sent to jail during the Freedom Rides and clips of the abuse made international headlines, incentivising many people to join the movement

Question 14

Two effects of sit-ins

Answer 14

(Date: Started on 1 Feb 1960, continued throughout the 60s)
Increased support
- More visible than boycotts, so everything could be seen by the public and media; over 70,000 people participated and businesses affected by them suffered two-fold
- Despite extreme abuse, protestors did not retaliate
- The sight of young AAs being attacked garnered sympathy, portrayed them as helpless victims

Kickstarted student protests
- Sit-ins started by four AA students on 1 Feb 1960, first major protest where students were the majority
- Success piqued the interest of existing groups, SCLC helped to train students, Ella Baker arranged for MLK to visit Greensboro, convinced him to let them set up their own group
- At the meeting, SNCC (first civil rights organisation aimed at students) was set up and given a grant from the SCLC

Question 15

Two effects of the Freedom riders/Anniston fire bombing

Answer 15

(Date: 4 May 1961-end of 1961, Anniston fire bombing 14 May)
Attracted media attention
- CORE designed the Freedom Rides to follow Supreme Court verdict on interstate travel and to provoke a violent response from prejudiced Southerners
- 14 May, white mob led by local KKK leader smashed windows and damaged tyres, firebomb thrown into the first bus
- KKK’s Anniston Fire Bombing made international headlines, highlighted the suffering of African Americans

Integration of bus facilities
- The Federal government, under Kennedy, was embarrassed by what the world was seeing, forced to act
- Threatened to send in US marshals to enforce desegregation of interstate buses and station facilities if states did not obey
- Threat was enough, states began to integrate bus facilities

Question 16

Two effects of the Meredith Case

Answer 16

(Date: May-Oct 1961)
Showed that Kennedy was willing to take direct action
- University refused to admit Meredith even after the Supreme Court ordered them to
- 29 Sep, Kennedy ordered those obstructing the law to desist
- 30 Sep, sent hundreds of Federal officials to escort Meredith to register, over 2000 sent to stop the rioting that followed

Violent opposition
- Mississippi: most anti-desegregation State, especially because of Ross Barnett, the Governor of Mississippi
- Meredith’s admission caused violent riots on campus which left two civilians dead and 300 injured
- Meredith was harassed and avoided through his years of education

Question 17

Two effects of the Birmingham Campaign

Answer 17

(Date: 3 Apr-May 1963)
Received publicity
- Birmingham chosen because it was incredibly racist, with few desegregated facilities and a very active KKK, nicknamed “Bombingham”
- Retaliation would be more violent, would be more shocking
- Many were arrested, including MLK and Shuttlesworth, two very prominent members of the civil rights campaign

Garnered sympathy
- Didn’t respond with violence played out well in media as they would be seen as innocent victims of abuse
- SNCC trained people as young as six in non-violent protests
- Footage of children being chased by police dogs and attacked by fire hoses garnered much more sympathy

Question 18

Two effects of the Washington March/”Dream” speech

Answer 18

(Date: 28 Aug 1963)
Huge publicity
- Over 250,000 participated, one of the largest political gatherings in the USA
- Many celebrities were involved (e.g. Bob Dylan, Paul Newman, Marlon Brando)
- Huge publicity was brought to the cause, increasing numbers of supporters both nationally and internationally

Fixed MLK’s place as the leader of the entire movement
- Eloquent, instiled confidence and hope in AA community
- Was given a large audience in the march, both physically and via the media, inspired and impressed many with his speech
- Emphasised him as the face of the movement and let him use his influence to spread the message of non-violence

Question 19

Two effects of the Mississippi Freedom Summer

Answer 19

(Date: 1964)
Divisions within civil rights groups
- Death of campaigners Scherner, Goodman, and Chaney drew massive publicity, but many black members suspected it was only because Scherner and Goodman were white
- Convinced some that more radical solutions would solve the problem instead of following MLK’s nonviolent ideals
- Led to some of the African American community diverging from main Civil Rights community

Demoralised AA community
- 17,000 AAs tried to register, but only 1600 succeeded
- Most failed to register even though the teaching enabled them to pass the literacy tests, as they were threatened
- Widely viewed as a failure as it did not succeed at its aims of increasing voter registration

Question 20

Two effects of Selma and Voting Rights

Answer 20

(Date: Jan-21 Mar 1965)
Start of split in Civil Rights movement
- Despite the incredible violence, MLK would not let marchers confront police, so the second march was called off
- Many protestors, including SNCC members, wanted to directly confront the police and more began to question non-violence as a strategy
- Led to more militant protests in the years ahead

Increased number of AA voters
- On 7 March, protestors were brutally attacked by police with tear gas, horses, clubs, and cattle sticks, “Bloody Sunday”
- Johnson submitted a voting rights act ten days later and used the incident to persuade Congress to support the bill
- Voting Rights Act of 1965 was passed in August, nearly 11,000 new voters registered in Selma by March 1966

Question 21

Two effects of the Civil Rights Act of 1964

Answer 21

(Date: 2 Jul 1964)
Improved voter turnout
- Johnson used the horror of Kennedy’s assassination to bully Congress into supporting the bill without amendments
- Pointed out the unfairness of the literacy tests, and that most white people wouldn’t be able to do the same tests AAs had to (e.g. reciting the entire Constitution)
- Terms stated that voter registration tests had to be fair and the same for black and white people

Many AAs disappointed it didn’t go far enough
- Legal segregation ended but not discrimination (especially in the Deep South) as it was incredibly hard to enforce these laws
- Johnson removed some sections trying to increase AA voters from the original bill, fearing it wouldn’t pass if they remained
- Therefore it didn’t help as much as it could have to remove the issues that prevented AAs from voting

Question 22

Two effects of the Voting Rights Act of 1965

Answer 22

(Date: 6 Aug 1965)
Caused voting registrations to become a lot more equal
- Black people had to pass difficult literacy tests that most white people wouldn’t be able to do, and pay a poll tax they most likely couldn’t afford
- Terms stated there would be one fair national test, and would be under supervision of federal examiners
- Allowed black voters to increase tenfold in the state of Mississippi and to double in Louisiana and Georgia

Instilled hope
- Tangible change that could show results in a short time
- Johnson persuaded Congress to pass the bill, showed that he was willing to work to improve AAs’ lives; the fact that it was passed showed that an increased amount of Congressmen wanted to help as well
- Provided the AAs with faith that change would come

Question 23

Two effects of the Nation of Islam/work of Malcolm X

Answer 23

(Malcolm X Date: 1940s-1964| Nation of Islam Date: 1930s-74)
Increase in radical civil rights activists
- Some AA youths were already dissatisfied at the slow progress made by MLK, so Black Nationalism (living completely separately from other races) resonated with them
- Increased membership in Nation of Islam by sixty times through Malcolm X’s eloquent speeches
- His beliefs in self defence and autonomy inspired many other dissatisfied black people to take action and form radical groups like the Black Panthers long after his death

Divide in civil rights groups
- While MLK preached nonviolent forms of protesting, he believed that violence could be justified as a means of achieving a separate black nation
- Critical of civil rights movement and leaders like MLK, referring to the March on Washington as the “Farce on Washington”, seeing it as an attempt to please white people
- Community was divided in half, one following MLK and the other following Malcolm X, and his strong words scared many moderate black citizens and white people in general

Question 24

Two effects of the Black Power movement

Answer 24

(Date: 1966-74)
Inspired pride within AA community
- More radical ideas were becoming more popular as more people were dissatisfied with the slow progress made by MLK
- Believed that they should fight back instead of letting their community get beaten without retribution
- Allowed the community to be proud of their culture and heritage, increased admiration for their history

Caused a divide in the community
- Believed in taking more radical measures such as actively antagonising police members
- Government and police actions against all civil rights activists increased, government was less willing to work with them
- Horrified many moderate AA civil rights supporters and white Americans; some less radicalised protesters blamed Black Power for race riots and alienation of white allies

Question 25

Two effects of race riots (especially in the Watts District)

Answer 25

(Date: July 1964-69 (nice) | Watts District: 11-17 Aug 1965)
Highlighted frustration in AA community
- Had already been many riots for past 4 years, but rumours that officers had attacked Frye’s mother and pregnant girlfriend caused the most violent one yet (34 dead, over 1000 injured, nearly 4,000 arrested)
- City authorities blamed the influence of Black Power, but the 1968 Kerner Report was set up to investigate the true reason
- Reported that riots had been primarily caused by frustration at poor living conditions caused by segregation, failure of authorities to respond to reported problems, and police brutality

Loss of white support
- Steady rise in popularity of more radical ideas such as Black Power already scared many white Americans
- Rioting by AAs seemed to signify the end of non-violence, caused a loss of sympathy
- Exaggerated reporting of riots by media exacerbated fear

Question 26

Two effects of the Black Panthers/Bobby Seale and Huey Newton

Answer 26

(Date: Set up in Oct 1966)
Increased hope in the AA community
- Many successful schemes: organised medical clinics for free healthcare, ran breakfast clubs for children, provided free shoes, ran classes on black history, encouraged cooperation between gangs to reduce violence
- Living conditions in the ghettos were improved, and increased pride in AAs’ identity
- Many people in the ghettos saw them as more effective police

Threatened the government
- Weren’t afraid to break the law for their cause - sometimes money for projects were gained through theft
- Launched the “patrolling the pigs” campaign, where they followed police to prevent abuse of AAs
- Seen as a great threat to the government due to their socialist beliefs, so members were heavily watched by the FBI

Question 27

Reasons for the growth of protest movements

Answer 27

The media
- Protest movements across the world inspired people to protest in other countries, including the USA. For example, the protests in Paris in May 1968, where workers went on strike in protest against capitalism and traditional values
- Media coverage of the protests in the USA also attracted more supporters, but also led to a growth of opposition
- Singers such as Bob Dylan, Jimi Hendrix, and Janis Joplin, and bands such as the Beatles, Country Joe, and the Fish promoted alternative life styles which challenged American traditions

Advancements in technology
- In the 60s, most American homes had televisions for the first time and saw what was happening outside the USA. The Vietnam War (and other issues such as racism) received huge coverage and this led to a growth in opposition to the war.
- The invention of the contraceptive pill and the increasing availability of time-saving domestic appliances led more women to question their roles in society

Increasing role of government
- Fighting injustice was not seen as the government’s role until Roosevelt made many changes during the Great Depression in the 30s
- By the 60s, many expected their government to take measures to make people’s lives better, inspiring protests to ask the government to take action

Propserity
- After WW2 there was an increase in the birth rate. By the 60s, society had to start listening to the views of the “baby boomers”, because there were so many of them
- There was great prosperity in the USA in the 60s, but this was overwhelmingly for white Protestant men. The greater wealth of these people highlighted those who were not so fortunate
- After WW2, there was a rapid rise in the number of Americans going to college. By 1970, nearly 40% of all young people (and there were a lot due to the baby boom) went on to higher education after leaving school. All of the factors above led to an increased awareness in students of the unfairness of some rules of the universities they attended

Question 28

Two effects of the student movement

Answer 28

(Date: 1960-70s)
Increased left-wing beliefs in younger people
- Felt that the older people helped to create a corrupt society (popular slogan “Don’t trust anyone over 30”)
- Caused many students to reject the views of older people (who were usually conservative), including their parents
- Most activists were left wing, believing that the government should be actively involved in improving citizens’ lives

Increased political interest within universities
- Traditionally, American universities were for concentrating on studies and enjoying their social life
- However, with the civil rights movement and the Vietnam War being televised, students became more politically active
- More students joined protest organisations or made their own, such as the SDS and SNCC

Question 29

Two effects of the anti-Vietnam War movement

Answer 29

(Date: 1950-70s, peaked in 68 and 70)
Increased awareness opposition to the Vietnam War
- Many protests were televised and publicity was increased, led to more awareness and support of the movement
- In teach-ins, people gave lectures on the conflict in Vietnam
- March on Washington in Nov 1969 attracted over 500,000

Worsened the protesters’ reputations
- Many protests turned violent (such as a protest at Kent State University which left four students killed and 11 injured) making them seem aggressive and unreasonable
- Some burned the US flag and openly declared their support for North Vietnam and communism, seen as unpatriotic
- Nixon’s “silent majority” speech seemed to prove that more Americans supported Nixon’s handling of the Vietnam War

Question 30

Two effects of the Berkeley Free Speech movement

Answer 30

(Date: Sep-Dec 1964)
Failure to achieve goals
- The leaders were sentenced to between 1 and 4 months in prison, despite being told they wouldn’t be punished
- Though university staff voted strongly in favour for there to be no limits on protests, in reality there were detailed rules about how, when and where protests could be carried out
- Due to the variety of issues and numerous differing views, the scope and stance was too wide, and few aims were met

Worsened the reputation of student protestors
- Never had much support in the local community, lost support of moderate students as it became more confrontational
- Many were appalled by their behaviour. A swear word used on signs at a rally led to the label “Filthy Speech Movement”
- Many older people regarded them as troublemakers with nothing better to do and it never gained more general support

Question 31

Two effects of the Students for a Democratic Society

Answer 31

(Date: 1960s)
Better student rights within universities and colleges
- Students had little say in policies and practices of the universities (such as courses offered)
- Strict rules allowed university officials to act like their parents, such as what time they had to return to their accommodation
- Organised sit-ins and rallies to try and give students more say

Worsened the reputation of student protestors
- Never had much support in the local community, lost support of moderate students as it became more confrontational
- Many were appalled by their behaviour, especially older people who regarded them as troublemakers with nothing better to do
- Many protests turned violent (such as a protest at Kent State University which left four students killed and 11 injured) making them seem aggressive and unreasonable
- Some burned the US flag and openly declared their support for North Vietnam and communism, seen as unpatriotic

Question 32

Two effects of hippies

Answer 32

(Date: 1960s onwards)
Positive effect: encouraged equality
- Sexually open: nudity was encouraged, experimented with sex, drugs, and various forms of art, especially music, “‘if it feels good, do it”
- Emphasis on peace and love: many wore flowers and handed them out, including to police, “make love, not war”, involved in protests due to anti-war views and belief in equality
- Encouragement of alt lifestyles led to more acceptance of different sexuality, race, and genders in wider US society

Negative effect: not taken seriously
- Viewed as “wasters” who corrupted the country, could not understand why their children wanted to behave in this way and reject the society their parents had helped to create
- Media portrayed them as lazy, in denial of societal responsibility
- Little impact on government policies, did not bring about concrete, legislative change

Question 33

Two effects of Betty Friedan

Answer 33

(Date: Published “The Feminine Mystique”” in 1963)
Kickstarted feminist movement
- Came to prominence after the publication of her book, The Feminine Mystique, in 1963
- Described the idea that women should only find happiness and satisfaction in their role as housewives and mothers as a myth, pushed women to escape their prisons (homes) and find happiness in paid employment
- Book became a bestseller and was very influential in changing thinking in America

Helped to set up NOW
- Realised that new laws were not enough to end discrimination or change people’s attitudes
- June 1966, Betty Friedan and other feminists set up the National Organisation for Women, became first president
- Pressure group to attract supporters and put pressure on authorities to enforce equality through protests, strikes, petitions, lobbying politicians and taking legal action

Question 34

Two effects of Eleanor Roosevelt

Answer 34

(Date: 1933-62)
Brought legislation for equality
- Put pressure on her husband and later presidents to employ more women, agreed to support JFK if he agreed to establish a commission on the status of women if he became president
- Kennedy created President’s Commission on the Status of Women in Dec 1961, which found that only 4% of lawyers and doctors were women, and women earned between 50-60% of what a man earned for doing the same job
- Equal Pay Act and Civil Rights Act of 1964 being signed: made it illegal to pay people different rates for doing the same job or discriminate against someone because of their gender

Increased support for women’s rights movement
- First First lady to hold own press conferences, only allowed women to attend, so female journalists had to be employed
- Made broadcasts on the radio and television and wrote many articles (including her own newspaper column) voicing her opinions on many matters including women’s rights
- Open discussions of womens’ rights increased support

Question 35

Two effects of NOW

Answer 35

(Date: Jun 1966 onwards)
Increased awareness
- 26 Aug 1970, organised Women’s Strike for Equality to draw attention to discrimination in the workplace. Largest protest: march down New York’s Fifth Avenue with 50,000 members
- Feb 1970, disrupted the Senate during a debate, displayed posters calling for the Equal Rights Amendment to be passed
- These large and visible protests drew attention to the issues and discrimination women faced

Legalised abortion
- Previously, abortion was only legal if the pregnancy put the mother’s life at risk, but NOW activists argued that a woman should be able to choose what she did with her own body
- Pointed out that abortions were happening anyway, but since they were illegal, the people performing abortion often did not have the right qualifications, making them more dangerous
- 1973, Roe vs Wade legalised abortion

Question 36

Two effects of the women’s liberation movement

Answer 36

(Date: ~1968 onwards)
Legalised abortion
- Previously, abortion was only legal if the pregnancy put the mother’s life at risk, but WL activists, as well as NOW activists, argued that a woman should be able to choose what she did with her own body
- Pointed out that abortions were happening anyway, but since they were illegal, the people performing abortion often did not have the right qualifications, making them more dangerous
- Roe vs Wade that abortion should be legalised

Divided women’s rights communities
- Aggressive protests, more radical and confrontational than groups like NOW, scared off moderate people and never received much support
- Moderate feminists thought that the focus on radical ideas took attention away from issues that actually mattered, like discrimination in employment
- Believed that the negative publicity they received caused people to not take feminism seriously, and some even blamed them for weakening the entire movement

Question 37

Two effects of Phyllis Schafly

Answer 37

(Date: 1970s)
Delayed the Equal Rights Amendment
- Would mean that women would be treated totally identical to men under the US Constitution
- Founded “STOP ERA” (STOP standing for Stop Taking Our Privileges), argued the ERA would take away “privileges” women got, such as the exemption from military service
- Delayed ratification of the ERA until the time limit was reached in 1982, when only 35 of the 38 states needed to ratify it had done so. In 2016, the ERA has still not become US law

Became the face of anti-feminism
- Believed that traditional role of housewife and mother was what nature intended, fiercely opposed abortion as a Catholic
- Had been politically active since the 50s, even standing for Congress in 1952, made her a leading conservative voice
- Speeches and writings convinced many women to join the anti-feminist cause

Question 38

Reasons and key features of the Watergate Scandal

Answer 38

White House Plumbers and CREEP
- Nixon was a paranoid and suspicious man by nature. When the New York Times published an article based on the Pentagon Papers, he was furious that information had been leaked, though it had not been personally damaging to him
- Set up the “White House Plumbers” to prevent more leaks. Sep: broke into Ellsberg’s psychiatrist’s office, but couldn’t find anything they could use to discredit him
- Nixon stood for re-election in 72, creating CREEP to raise funds. Mitchell was given a secret fund to pay the Plumbers, who spied on and damaged potential opponents
- Several people hoping to be the Democratic presidential candidate were disgraced. The Plumbers persuaded a newspaper to publish damaging (and probably untrue) stories about Edmund Muskie’s wife, and he broke down in tears
- 17 June 1972, five men were arrested after breaking in to the Watergate complex, repairing bugging devices later discovered to have been installed during a past break-in on 28 May

The Washington Post and FBI
- Two suspicious reporters, Woodward and Bernstein, found connections to CREEP. Despite Mitchell’s denial, with help from the FBI, they found more links to CREEP and the White House
- Despite denial of their reports by the White House, they brought the affair to the public attention and raised suspicions of Democrat members of Congress
- FBI found links to CREEP, discovering that Howard Hunt and G. Gordon Liddy (Plumbers) had planned the break-in
- Over the next 2 years, the FBI realised that the break-in was financed by CREEP and civilian donations who thought they were helping Nixon’s reelection

Watergate Scandal
- Even after links to CREEP, most believed it when the White House lawyer found no links to anyone from the staff. No one thought officials would be linked illegal activity, as Nixon was considered an effective president despite the Vietnam War
- Trial began on 8 Jan 1973, and they were charged with conspiracy, burglary and wiretapping. On the 19th, the judge received a letter from James McCord, Director of Security for CREEP, claiming that leading officials told the burglars to lie
- Nixon denied this and announced a new investigation led by Archibald Cox on 17 April. 30 April, announced that he had fired the White House Chief of Staff, and that the Head of the Plumbers had resigned
- Democrats persuaded the Senate to run its own investigation, and set up the Select Committee on Presidential Campaign Activities on 7 February, led by Sam Ervin
- Investigation began in May, and the televised meetings revealed the extent of the corruption. John Dean’s testimony was the first to deliver the shock that the president was involved in the cover-up

Watergate Recordings
- A witness revealed that all conversations in the presidents’ office had been recorded since 1971. Cox and the SC tried to get access, but Nixon refused on the grounds of national security, as they were about more than just Watergate. He feared it would prevent people speaking openly to the president in private again
- Oct 1973, released some edited scripts, releasing more unedited ones except bad language the following April. The public were shocked by the swearing and what was discussed
- The Senate considered impeaching Nixon as he didn’t allow access to the recordings, and some of the scripts had been cut
- 24 Jul, Supreme Court ordered Nixon to supply all recordings. 5 Aug, recording from 23 June 1972 revealed Nixon had tried to stop the FBI investigating the break-in, proving that he had tried to cover up Watergate from the start
- Nixon resigned on 9 August before he could be impeached

Question 39

Two effects of the Watergate Scandal

Answer 39

(Date: 17 Jun 1972-9 Aug 1974)
Ending of Richard Nixon’s political career
- 5 Aug, recording from 1972 revealed Nixon had tried to stop the FBI investigating the break-in, proving that he had tried to cover up Watergate since the beginning
- Lack of apology and arrogance in being above the law, as well as Watergate, caused all of his achievements to be disregarded
- Led to him resigning (said it was for the good of the country, but it was certain he was going to be impeached)

Change in politics - voters valued honesty over capability
- Many officials were tried, which led to massive change in staff; Republican Party tried to distance itself from Nixon, but suffered badly at next few elections
- Democrats chose the unknown Jimmy Carter because he was likable, honest, and religious; he won despite lacking skills to be a strong president
- New laws introduced to prevent another Watergate, or future presidents from acting without the approval of Congress

(1973 House and Senate Open Meeting Rules- all committee meetings had to be open to the public
1973 War Powers Act- stopped a president going to war without Congress’ approval
1974 Election Campaign Act- set limits on election campaign spending and contributions
1974 Freedom of Information Act- gave people the right to access any government documents in which they featured
1974 Privacy Act- set rules on how the government could collect information on individuals.
1974 Congressional Budget Control Act - set rules on how the president could use government money)

Question 40

Two effects of Gerald Ford and the presidential pardon

Answer 40

(Date: Jun 1974)
Angered the US public
- Announced a month after becoming president that Nixon would be pardoned, even though millions wanted to see him brought to justice, and there were still unknowns
- Some accused Ford of making a deal with Nixon before his resignation, but he denied this
- Lost the 1976 election because of the controversy

Helped the USA recover from Watergate
- Needed to restore faith in the government, calm personality and honesty did regain some confidence
- Despite the controversy, repeatedly stated that the pardon was the only way the USA could move on from Watergate
- Otherwise there would be months, if not years, of criminal trials, which would only prolong the conflict