Variation, Change and Diffusion

Question 1

Relationship between variation and change.

Answer 1

Variation is the act of there being multiple versions of a language or languages whereas language change occurs on one language.

Question 2

Models of linguistic diversifications

Answer 2

Transmission
Spatial Diffusion
Social Diffusion

Question 3

Models of Diffusion

Answer 3

Wave
Gravity

Question 4

Transmission

Answer 4

Transmission is responsible for genealogical relations between languages. Information is slowly passed down generation to generation eventually leading to language change.

Question 5

Spatial Diffusion

Answer 5

The geographic spreading of language.
Vowels in Northern Cities
- Detroit
- I55 corridor
Physical + social interactions are related

Question 6

Social Diffusion

Answer 6

The spread of language on a social level between age groups, social economic groups and other social circles.

Question 7

Wave model

Answer 7

(Spatial Diffusion)
“Wave” or “contagion” models: language change starts at a single starting point + ripples outwards (distance)
- innovations spread from a location to other physically nearby locations

Question 8

Gravity model

Answer 8

(Spatial Diffusion)
“gravity” or “hierarchical” models: Innovations are spread irregularly through geographic space, but relate to social “influence”
- larger cities -> larger cities -> smaller cities
Irregular through geographic gravitating; whether it is geographic or social and geographic

Question 9

Relationship of s-curve to diffusions

Answer 9

the spread of a linguistic change often follows an S-curve pattern: slow initial adoption, rapid increase, and then a leveling off as the change becomes widespread

Question 10

Social Meaning and Change

Answer 10

• social factors and social connotations of linguistic features play a significant role in language change
• features can be stigmatized and subject to overt comments
• individuals and subgroups can disrupt norms to establish social space through acts of identity

Question 11

Studying Change and Variation

Answer 11

real-time studies
apparent-time studies
generational change
age-grading
changes from below
changes from above

Question 12

real-time vs apparent time

Answer 12

Real-time - many time points?? ages

Apparent time - one time point many ages

Question 13

generational change vs. age-grading

Answer 13

Generational change (= change in progress!)
- younger (innovating) generations will continue to show the trait as they grow older.
- over-time: stability for individuals; change for community

Age-grading (= no change in progress!)
- variation across age-groups will remain more-or-less intact
- over-time: change for individual; stability for community
–> younger language users may be less reluctant to use socially stigmatized variants; use more toward “prestigious” (standard) variants with age.

Question 14

change from below vs change from above and the predictions with these

Answer 14

Change from below:
- change below level of awareness (consciousness) of language users.
- starts out as a Non-prestiguous (even stigmatized) trait; gradually creeps up the social ladder over time

Change from above:
- consciously aware (to some extent) of change
- usually adoption of some prestigious (more “standard” trait)

BUT “prestige” is a relative and constantly changing notion!

Question 15

S-Curve

Answer 15

(Social Diffusion)
Increase in relative frequency (of the new variant either across contexts, time or in society)
- pattern of slow-quick-slow
-Related to the idea of threshold

Question 16

Contra-hierarchical

Answer 16

(Spatial Diffusion)
“contra-hierarchical” model: Innovations are spread irregularly through geographic space, but relate to social covert prestige.
- innovations spreading from rural areas + small towns to larger cities