uworld review Flashcards
schacter -singer theory is
how emotion results from physiological arousal followed by cognitive appraisal (i.e. sensory info and interpretation of environmental cues are required)
two factor theory
cannon-bard theory
Physiological arousal and emotion are indecent processes that simultaneously lie. (i.e. the experience of emotion is not tied to sensory info from the body)
theory of universal emotions:
certain emotions are expressed/detected by everyone regardless of culture
james-lange theory
specific emotions result from stimuli eliciting specific physiological reactions that are transmitted to the brain via spinal cord white matter (afferent axonal tracts carrying sensory info from body to brain)
functionalism description
society = an organism
each part of society works to maintain homeostasis
macro-sociology
functionalist theorist
emile durkheim, talbots parsons
conflict theory
society = struggle for limited resources
inequality based on social class
macro-sociology
conflict theory theorists
karl marx, max weber
social constructionism description
social actors define what’s real
knowledge about world based on interactions
macro or micro sociology
symbolic interactionism
meaning + value attached to symbols
individual interactions based on these symbols
micro sociology
symbolic interactionism theorists
charles cooley, george herbert mead
rational choice/social exchange
individual behaviors and interactions attempt to max personal gain and min personal cost
microsociology
feminist theory
examines gender inequality in society
macro or micro sociology
modernization
reduced importance of religion as society industrializes
secularization
reduced power of religion as religious involvement declines
fundamentalism
renewed commitment to traditional religion as a reaction to secularization
modernization refers to social progress and transition of society brought by…
industrialization
society is becoming less traditional / more bureaucratized / less religion
as religious involvement declines, secularization of a society
occurs as religious institutions lose social and political influence
what can be a reaction to secularization?
traditional religious beliefs + practices get renewed as per fundamentalism
what is religiosity?
the extent to which a religious doctrine is internalized and incorporated with a high degree of religiosity
manifest functions
intended, obvious purpose of a social structure
e.g. teaching facts and skills is a manifest function of the education system
latent functions
unintended result of a social structure
e.g. contributing to social inequality is a latent function of the education system
structural functionalism is a
macro sociological perspective that compared modern society to a biological organism
structural functionalism analogy
just as various organ systems cooperate to maintain an organism’s homeostastic —> social institutions working together in the interest of social balance (dynamic equilibrium)
social institutions have what functions?
manifest —> intended
latent —> unintended
power refers to the ability to
control and infleunce others
authority refers to whether
others believe that power is legitimate
three types of authority
traditional authority
charismatic authority
rational-legal authority
traditional authority comes
longstanding patterns in society (a queen having legit power in a monarchy)
charismatic authority stems from the
personal appeal and/or extraordinary claims of an individual (MLK w/ his ability to inspire people)
rational-legal authority arises from the
professional position a person holds (e.g a doctor having power due to extensive training)
medicalization is the process of defining
human behaviors or characteristics as medical conditions due to shifting attitudes/new evidence and treatments
example of medicalization
menopause is now viewed by some as a hormonal deficiency that can be treated with meds
medicalization leads to people looking to med professionals in diagnosing/preventing/treating said condition
life course approach is a
holistic/multidisciplinary framework for understanding how psychological/biological/sociocultural factors across a lifetime having a cumulative effect on health outcomes
what factors impact health and illness as per the life course approach?
personal life events (illness in infancy)
individual choices/behaviors (e.g. having unprotected sex)
sociocultural and historical context (e.g. being born during wartime)
classical conditioning causes an organism to react
to a natural or unconditioned stimulus after the two stimuli have been paired
unconditioned stimuli will called
an unconditioned response
neutral stimuli do not produce a
meaningful response
conditioned response occurs
when stimulus becomes conditioned
positive reinforcement
desirable stimulus added
e.g. toddler gets candy for using toilet
reinforcement increases
behavior
negative reinforcement
undesirable stimulus removed
e.g. teen doesn’t have to do chores after getting all As
escape learning
current undesirable stimulus removed
e.g. teen fakes illness to not do chores
avoidance learning
future undesirable stimulus prevented
e.g. teen stays late at school to avoid chores
punishment decreases
behavior
positive punishment
undesirable stimulus added
e.g. toddler gets spanked for running into street
negative punishment
desirable stimulus removed
e.g. teen gets grounded for getting bad grades
operant conditioning
likelihood of an individual repeating a behavior influenced by the outcome of that behavior (i.e. by reward or punishment)
taste aversion is a specific type of
classical conditioning that occurs after an organism becomes ill after consuming something
extinction occurs when a
conditioned response gradually stopped occurring in the absence of the unconditioned stimulus
example of extinction
a dog that has been conditioned to salivate (conditioned response) in response to a bell sound (conditioned stimulus) will gradually stop salivating to the sound of the bell if the sound is presented without food
reliability refers to the
consistency of an experiment or measure
reliable measures produce
similar results every time
indication that an experimental design is highly reliable is called
replicability
validity refers to the
accuracy of a study or measure
external validity is the
extent to which study results can be applied outside the lab to real life situations
aka generalizability
standardization refers to
test admin and/or scoring being done in uniform manner
gestalt principles of perceptual organizations describe how
humans holistically perceive sensory stimuli
most often describe perception of visual stimuli
similarity is the gestalt principle that refers to
the tendency to group objects together when they share similar features such as shape and color
common fate is the
gestalt principle
describes the perception that moving objects are grouped together to form a unit
e.g. flock of birds flying in V-formation = unit
proximity is the
gestalt principle
describes our tendency to perceive things physically closer to one another as a group
e.g. letters that are closer together that are grouped as a word
continuity is the
gestalt principle
describes our tendency to perceive elements as continuing on a smooth path
e.g. “X” is perceived as two crossing lines, rather than two “V” shapes touching
population pyramids display
relative number of male and females in each age cohort in a given population
three types of population pyramids
expanding pyramids
stationary pyramids
contracting pyramids
expanding pyramids have
- broad bases (lots of younger people)
- narrow tops (few older people)
increasing population size
usually for developing countries w/ high birth and death rates
stationary pyramids have
- broad bases
- broad tops
- developed countries with low birth and death rates
- stable population size
contracting pyramids have
- narrower bases than middles
- developed countries with low birth rates
- gradually declining population size
top-down processing is
aka conceptually driven processing
guided by info/beliefs/ideas already stored in our brain
e.g. seeing a coiled hose and thinking it’s a snake momentarily
top down processing can involve
context + motivations
bottom up processing
aka stimulus-driven processing
guided by incoming data / sensory info
e.g. sand burning your feet, guides perception
parallel processing refers to
processing multiple sources of info that occur simultaneously
i.e. perceiving auditory and visual events together when watching someone talk
serial processing refers to
processing one piece of info at a time such as memorizing a list item by item
absolute threshold is the
intensity value at which an individual is able to detect the stimulus 50% of the time
absolute threshold example w/ sugar
tasting sweetness when 1 tsp of sugar is dissolved in 2 gal of water
given individual should be able to detect sweet about 50% of time
stimuli presented at intensities above the abs threshold value are
more likely to be detected
intensities presented below abs threshold are
more likely to be missed
difference threshold is the same things as
just noticeable difference (JND)
smallest difference bw two stimuli that a person can detect 50% of the time is called
difference threshold / JND
sensory adaptation occurs when
individual’s sensory receptors adapt to the presence of a stimulus
e.g. when you put your watch on, you notice i.t. against your skin but after a few mins, you forget it’s there
signal detection theory quantifies
how judgements or decision are made under uncertain conditions amid “noise” (ext or int distractions)
when a signal is correctly perceived as present…
it is a correct detection or “a hit”
when a signal is not detected even though it is present…
it is a false negative or “a miss”
when a signal is absent but a perception is erroneously reported…
this is a false positive
when the signal is accurately judged absent..
this is a correct rejection
absolute threshold (intensity needed to detect a stimulus half the time) can be
determined by varying the stimulus intensity (IV) and measuring the % of time is correctly detected (DV)
error bars in stats:
confidence intervals (CIs)
standard deviations
or
standard errors
Cls represent a measure of
uncertainty in a reported value by indication how far the value reported might be from the true value (e.g. true mean)
overlapping confidence intervals indicate that the
difference bw groups may or may not be statistically signifcant
defense mechanisms are largely unconscious means of
dealing w/ anxiety or stress
often through distorting or ignoring aspects of reality
reaction formation occurs when individuals
outwardly express the OPPOSITE of how they actually feel when those thoughts/feelings are distressing
displacement involves
taking one’s unacceptable thoughts and behaviors on another person or object
rationialization involves
making excuses to yourself/others for your unacceptable thoughts and behaviors
projection involves
attributing one’s unacceptable thoughts and behaviors to others
regression
behaving immature to avoid responsibility for unacceptable thoughts and behaviors
sublimination
transforming unacceptable thoughts/behaviors into acceptable thoughts/behaviors
symbolic interactionism emphasizes
the interpersonal interactions through which subjective meanings are developed to shape a social reality
e.g. handshaking in the US vs bowing in Japan
definition of the situation in regards to symbolic interactionist describes how
shared expectations behaviors help people understand the role of everyone involved in the interaction
e.g. patients expect doctors to behave professionally and discreetly
in classical conditioning:
before acquisition (resp is innate)
describe stimulus/response
unconditioned stimulus (UCS) –> unconditioned response (UCR)
UCS can be a scary noise
UCR can be the reaction (being startled)
during acquisition in classical conditioning
unconditioned stimulus (scary noise) + neural stimulus (NS) –> unconditioned response (startled)
NS can be a cue
after acquisition (response is learned)
conditioned stimulus (CS) –> conditioned response (CR)
CS can be the cue
CR can be the reaction (being startled)
eventually the biological response elicited by the neural stimulus (NS) is now…
the conditioned stimulus eliciting a conditioned response
types of stressors (for few people)
daily hassle (MINOR - e.g. traffic jam)
personal life event (MAJOR - major life transition like divorce)
stressors (many people)
ambient (MINOR - pollution)
catastrophe (MAJOR - natural disaster)
general adaptation syndrome (GAS) describes…
how the body reacts to stress (acute or long-lasting)
GAS stages
alarm stage
resistance stage
exhaustion stage
alartm stage
1st stage
first few mins of stress response during which sympathetic NS activates (FIGHT OR FLIGHT)
heart/respiratory rate + blood sugar levels increase
stress hormones release
resistance stage
2nd stage
last for hours (e.g. exercise), days (e.g. final exams), months (e.g. family tragedy)
body attempts to resist/address stressor
levels of stress hormones begin to return to normal
new equilibrium is established by body
if stress continued over prolonged period, body enters…
exhaustion stage
exhaustion stage
3rd stage
state of arousal but with depleted energy
chronic diseases can develop (high bp, heart disease)
body can’t resist stressor impact
prefrontal cortex when stressed (chronic)
decreases coping skills
increases hypervigilance
amygdala when stressed (chronic)
increases anger/anxiety
hippocampus when stressed (chronic)
decreases ability to learn
what hormones are released when you are stressed?
cortisol, epinephrine, norepinephrine from adrenal glands
which parts of the brain are sensitive to stress hormones?
hippocampus, amygdala, prefrontal cortex
can demonstrate structural changes
prefrontal cortex changes when stressed
decreases dendritic branching in areas associated w/ cognitive flexibility
results in reduced coping mechanisms
increases dendritic branching in areas for hyper vigilance
what happens to the hippocampus when stressed?
increases inflammation while decreasing dendritic branching and volume in hippocampus
physiological changes inhibit learning/memory –> produce emotional changes (anhedonia)
anhedonia is
the decreased ability to experience pleasure
what happens to the amygdala when stressed?
growth of dendritic spines and excitability of neurons in amygdala are altered
more anger/fear/anxiety
cognitive-behavioral therapy attempts to change
neg thoughts/beliefs & maladaptive behaviors
CBT techniques
desensitization/self talk
used to replace destructive thoughts/behaviors w/ healthy ones
psychoanalytic therapy
aka “talk therapy”
attempts to uncover unconscious conflicts from childhood
psychoanalytic therapy techniques
free association/dream analysis
used to analyze unconscious
humanistic therapy
aka person-centered therapy
attempts to empower individual to move toward self-actualization
humanistic therapy techniques
unconditional positive regard & empathy used to encourage client to reach full potential
what is a source monitoring error?
inaccurately remembering the source of info
e.g. seeing a tv ad and then misattributing information to doctor when recalling information
memory construction refers to the process of
recreating a memory each time it is recalled
not stored/recalled as a copy of exact events occurred
memories appear to be reconstructed upon recall (can cause alterations)
specialization of brain division is known as
hemispheric lateralization
each hemisphere of the brain is responsible for
contralateral control of the body
left hemisphere controls
touch and movement on the right side of the body and vice versa
right hemisphere is crucial for
processing visuospatial patterns
damage to the right hemisphere causes
deficits in visuospatial processing
right hemisphere is important for
artistic and musical abilities, visualization and emotion
left hemisphere of the brain is important for
language ability including speaking, writing and comprehension, analytical reasoning skills/logic
what are glomeruli?
cluster of nerve endings where waste products are filtered from the blood
olfactory bulb contains thousands of what?
glomeruli
somatic symptom disorders are characterized by
physical symptoms brought about by psychological stress
what flows from the humanistic view of personality?
Maslow’s hierarchy of needs and Rogers’ unconditional positive regard
what does the humanistic perspective of personality emphasize?
internal feelings of healthy individuals as they strive for happiness and self-realization
conditional positive regard is a
situation in which acceptance/love one receives from significant others is contigent on one’s behavior
unconditional positive regard is a situation where
acceptance and love one receives from significant others is UNCONDITIONAL
spreading activation model states that
all ideas in our brains are connected together
when we recall one memory, another memory is recalled with it
what connects broca’s area to wernicke’s area?
arcuate fasciculus
proximal stimuli are the patterns of stimuli from
these objects and events that ACTUALLY REACH your senses
symptoms of bipolar type I includes
at least one manic episode that may be preceded or followed by hypomanic or major depressive episodes
in some cases of bipolar I disorder, patient may experience
psychosis
social facilitation describes the
tendency of people to perform at a different level when others are around
the pinna acts as a
funnel which assists in directing the sound further into the ear
covert orienting is the act of
mentally shifting one’s focus without moving one’s eyes
overt orienting is the
shifting from one place to another by moving your eyes
peer group is a
self-selected group formed around shared interests
mate choice is the selection of a
mate based on attraction and traits
mating systems describe the way in which
a group is organized in terms of sexual behavior
altruism is the
unselfish regard for the welfare of others
collective behavior refers to events
that suddenly emerge
events do not conform to rules/laws but instead are shaped absed on the issue at hand
material support is providing
physical or monetary support
aka tangible support
symptoms of bipolar type II includes at least
one major depressive episode and at least one hypomanic episode BUT NO MANIC EPISODE
persistent depressive disorder is dysthymia for at least
2 years that doesn’t meet criteria for major depressive order
PDD is mild but long-term
promiscuity is the mating system that is
characterized by NO exclusivity
type theory is the belief that an
individual’s personality can be quantified into a few unique categories
inclusive fitness is the measure of an organism’s success in the…
population based on how well it propagates its own genes
inclusive fitness also includes the ability of….
those offspring to then support others
social perception is the way by which we
generate impressions about people in our social environment
contains a perceiver, target, and situation
social capital is the practice of
developing and maintaining relationships that form social networks willing to help each other
3 types of social capital
bonding
bridging
linking
conversion disorder involves
unexplained syptoms resulting in loss of body function
associated with prior trauma
attribution theory focuses on the
tendency for people to infer the causes of other people’s behavior
what theory differentiates human intelligence into specific modalities rather than one single general ability?
gardner’s theory of multiple intelligences
what approach to psychological disorders state that human functioning is based upon the interaction of drives + forces within the person (esp the unconscious)?
psychodynamic approrach
related to freud’s psychoanalysis
self determination theory is a theory of
human motivation and personality
emphasizes 3 universal needs (autonomy, competence, relatedness)
opponent-process theory views emotions as
pairs of opposites
e.g. fear/relief or pleasure/pain
when one emotion is experienced, the other is
suppressed
the opponent-process theory explains motivation for
drug use
as drug use increases, the body
counteracts its effects
leads to tolerance and withdrawal symptoms
what is a method of enforcing compliance with social norms?
sanctions
what is self-control
an aspect of inhibitory control
ability to regulate one’s emotions/thoughts/behaviors in the face of temptations and impulses
self-regulation is the managing of
one’s internal states, impulses, resources
what is conscientiousness?
taking responsibility for personal performance
what is adaptability?
flexibility in handling change
trustworthiness is the
maintenance of honesty/integrity
innovation is
being comfortable w/ novel ideas, approaches, new information
ego depletion refers to the idea that
self-control or willpower that draws upon a limited pool of mental resources that can be used up
when the energy for mental activity is low…
self-control is typically impaired
hindsight bias describes the
tendency to perceive an event after it has occurred even if it was unlikely
e.g. lottery winner stating that she knew i.t. was a lucky ticket after winning
