p/s review Flashcards
franz gall is responsible for the study of
phrenology (studying bumps on head and linking to personality/traits)
pierre flourens studied the
functions of the major sections of brain
used extirpation to study brain
william james studied
functionalism
functionalism explains how
mental processes help people adapt to their environments
john dewey studied
functionalism
paul broca studied
people w/ legions in specific part of brain
think: BROCA’S AREA
broca’s area is responsible for
speech production
hermann von helmholtz studied
speed of impulse
made psych a science
sir charles sherrington studied
synapses
freud studied
psychoanalytic pov
cerebellum, medulla oblongata, reticular formation are part of
hindbrain
midbrain is comprised of
inferior and superior colliculi
forebrain includes the thalamus, hypothalamus, basal ganglia and…
limbic system
cerebral cortex
EEG is how we can study
regional cerebral blood flow
thalamus serves as the
relay station for sensory info
hypothalamus is responsible for
homeostasis and 4 F’s (feeding/fucking/fighting/feeling)
hypothalamus integrates with
endocrine system
finish pathway: hypothalamus –>
hypophyseal portal –> ant pituitary
basal ganglia helps
smooth movements and postural stability
septal nuclei is responsible for
pleasure and addiction
part of limbic system
amygdala is responsible for
fear and aggression
part of limbic system
hippocampus is responsible for
emotion and memory
part of limbic system
how many lobes in cerebral cortex
4
frontal cortex functions
executive function
impulse control
speech
motor
parietal lobe is responsible for
touch
pressure
temp
pain
spatial processing
occiptal lobe function
vision
temporal lobe function
sound
speech perception
memory
emotion
left cerebral hemisphere is responsible for
language
analytic
logic
math
usually dominant
right hemisphere is
intuition
creativity
spatial processing
sensory neurons
afferent
goes from PNS to CNS
interneurons are located
between other neurons
mainly CNS
motor neurons
efferent
go to muscles and glands
reflex arcs explains how interneurons in spinal cord relay info to…
stimuli source and brain at the same time
CNS includes
brain and spinal cord
PNS includes
nervous tissue and fibers outside CNS
somatic means
voluntary
autonomic means
involuntary
sympathetic NS means
fight or flight
parasympathetic NS means
rest and digest
neurotransmitters are released by
neurons to carry a signal
acetylcholine is used by
somatic NS to move muscles
parasympathetic NS and CNS
dopamine maintains
smooth movements and steady posture
endorphins are
natural pain killers
epinephrine and noriepinephrine maintains
wakefulness and mediate fight/flight responses
epinephrine tends to act as a
hormone
norepinephrine acts as a
neurotransmitter
GABA is an
inhibitory neurotransmitter
act as brain “stabilizers”
glycine is similar to
GABA
glutamate acts as an
excitatory neurotransmitter
serotonin modulates
mood
sleep
eating
dreaming
endocrine system is tied to the nervous system through the
hypothalamus and the anterior pituitary
cortisol is released by the
adrenal cortex
stress hormone
testosterone and estrogen mediate
libido
testosterone increases
aggressive behavior
testosterone and estrogen are produced in the
gonads
released by adrenal cortex
epinephrine and norepinephrine is released by
the adrenal medulla
causes physiological changes associated w/ the sympathetic NS
nervous system develops through what process
neurulation
during neurulation, notochord stimulates…
ectoderm to fold over
creating neural tube –> topped w/ neural crest cells
neural tube becomes the
CNS
neural crest cells spread throughout the
body
differentiating into diff tissues
primitive reflexes
rooting
moro
babinski
grasping
primitive reflexes exist in
infants and disappear w/ age
rooting reflex is when
infant turns head toward stimulus
moro reflex is when
infants extend their arms in response to a falling sensation
babinski reflex is when
infants’s big toe is extended and other toes fan out in response to the brushing on sole
grasping reflex is when
infants grab anything with their hands
sensory receptors are
sensory nerves that respond to stimuli
sensory ganglia is the collection of
cell bodies outside the CNS
projection areas are the areas in the brain that
analyze sensory input
absolute threshold is the
minimum of stimulus energy that will activate a sensory system
threshold of conscious perception is the minimum stimulus energy that will….
create a signal large enough in size
and long enough in duration to brought into awareness
difference threshold is the minimum in…
magnitude between two stimuli before one can perceive this difference
weber’s law states that
JND (just noticeable difference) for a stimulus is proportional to the magnitude of the stimulus
signal detection theory refers to the effects of
nonsensory factors such as experiences, motives and expectations on the perception of stimuli
accounts for response bias
adaptation refers to the
lowering or increasing sensitivity to a stimulus
outer ear is comprised of
pinna
external auditory canal
tympanic membrane
middle ear is connected to the
nasal cavity by eustachian tube
ossicles
think: MIS and HAS
malleus: hammer
incus: anvil
stapes: stirrup
footplate of stapes rests in the
oval window of cochlea
bony labyrinth is filled with
perilymph
part of inner ear
membranous labyrinth filled with
endolymph
part of inner ear
membranous labyrinth consists of
cochlea (sound)
utricle & saccule (linear acceleration)
semicircular canals (rotational acceleration and balance)
superior olive localizes (what) and is located (where)
sound
brain stem
inferior colliculus is the
startle reflex
inferior colliculus is also used by
both eyes and ears in the vestibulo-ocular reflex
vestibulo-ocular reflex keeps eyes
fixed on a single point as the head rotates
cornea gathers and filters
incoming light
iris controls
size of pupil
iris divides
front of eye into anterior and posterior chamber
iris contains 2 muscles
dilator
constrictor pupillae
lens refracts
incoming light to focus on the retina
aqueous humor is produced by the
cillary body
aqueous humor nourishes the
eye and give it shape
aqueous humor drains through
canal of Schlemm
rods detect
LIGHT AND DARK
contain rhodopsin
part of retina
cones detect
color
short / med / long
in fovea (center of macula)
contains photopsin
pathway from retina starting with rods/cones –>
bipolar cells
ganglion cells
optic nerve
retinal disparity is the space
between eyes
allows for binocular vision and depth
horizontal and amacrine cells integrates signals from…
ganglion cells and performs edge-sharpening
eye support on side
vitreous
sclera and choroid provide
support for eye on outside
parallel processing
color
form
motion
at the same time
magnocellular detects
motion
high temporal resolution
parvocellular cells process
shape
high spatial resolution
finish auditory pathway
cochlea –> vestibulocochlea nerve –>
medial geniculate nucleus (MGN) –> auditory cortex
eye –> optic nerves –> optic chiasms –>
optic tracts –> LGN –> visual radiations –> visual cortex
smell is the detection of volatile or aerosolized chemicals by
olfactory chemoreceptors in olfactory epithelium
smell information bypasses
thamalus
chemicals given off by animals that have an effect on social foraging and sexual behaviors are called
pheromones
taste is the detection of dissolved compounds by
taste puds in papillae
name the 5 tastes
sweet
sour
salty
bitter
umami
somatosensation refers to the four touch modalities
pressure
vibration
pain
temp
two point threshold refers to the minimum distance necessary between…
two points of stimulation on skin such that the points will be felt as two distinct stimuli
physiological zero is the normal temp of skin to which
objects are compared to
nocireceptors are
pain receptors
gate theory of pain
decrease JND for pain
kinesthetic sense is
proprioception
top down processing is the recongition of an object by
memories and expectations
little attention to detail
uses background knowledge
bottom up process is the recognition of objects by
feature detection
not influenced by background knowledge
gestalt principles
proximity
similarity
continuity
closure
all governed by law of pragnanz
habituation is
becoming used to a stimulus
dishabituation occurs when a
second stimulus intervenes causing a resensitization of original stimulus
associative learning is the pairing together of
stimuli and responses/behaviors and consequences
operant condition is changing behavior through
use of consequences
reinforcement increases
likelihood of behavior
punishment decreases
likelihood of behavior
schedule of reinforcement can be based on
an amt of time or ration of behavior/reward
fixed or variable
positive response (does what) something
adds
negative response (does what) something
removes
extinction is when
a previously reinforced behavior disappears when no longer reinforced
shaping occurs when a behavior that is
closer and closer to the target behavior is reinforced
part of operant condition
with repetition, a neutral stimulus becomes a condition stimulus in
classical conditioning
conditioned response produced
observational learning is the
acquisition of behavior by watching others
encoding is the process of putting
new info into memory
can be automatic or deliberate
what type of encoding is strongest
semantic encoding > visual and acoustic encoding
memory that is transient and based on neurotransmitter activity
sensory and short term memory
working memory requires
short term memory, attention and executive function to manipulate info
long term memory requires elaborate rehearsal and is the result of
increased neuronal connectivity
explicit memory accounts for memories that we must
consciously recall w/ effort and focus
implicit memory accounts for
acquired skills and conditioned responses to circumstances/stimuli
semantic networks store
facts
concepts are linked together based on
similar meaning in semantic networks
certain triggers will
activate associated memories
in semantic networks
recognition of info is stronger than
recall
retrieval is based on
priming interconnected nodes of the semantic network
what causes alzheimer’s
linked to loss of acetylcholine in neurons that link to hippocampus
causes dementia and memory loss
korsakoff’s syndrome is caused by
thiamine deficiency in brain
retrograde and anterograde amnesia are caused
confabulation is the fabrication of
vivid but fake memories as part of a korsakoff’s syndrome
agnosia is the loss of
ability to recognize objects, people or sounds
what is agnosia usually caused by
physical damage
retroactive interference is when
new memories make you forget old ones
proactive interference is when
old memories interfere with making new ones
information processing model
encodes/stores/retrieves info much like a computer
piaget’s stages involve
schemas and assimilation vs accomodation
piaget’s stages
sensorimotor (0-2 years)
preoperational (2 to 7 yrs)
concrete operational (7 to 11 years)
formal operational (12 and older)
sensorimotor stage
0 - 2 years
child manipulates environment to meed physical needs through circular rxns
object permanence develops at the end
preoperational stage
2 - 7 years
pretend play, symbolic thinking
learning to talk
egocentrism + centration
concrete operational
7 to 11 years
understands feelings of others
conservation develops
math skills develop
formal operational stage
12 and older
abstract thought and problem solving
moral reasoning
phonology is the
actual sound of speech
building block of words is called
morphology
semantics is the
meaning of words
rules dictating word order =
syntax
changes in language delivery depending on contact is
pragmatics
learning theory is the language acquisition controlled by
conditioning and reinforcement by parents and caregivers
nativist theory means language acquisition is
INNATE
social interactionist theory means language acquisition is
caused by a motivation to communicate and interact w/ others
linguistic relativity is the lens by which
we view and interpret the world is created by language
aka whorfian hypothesis
broca’s area produces
speech
wernicke’s area =
language comprehension
what connects broca’s area and wernicke’s area
arcuate fasciculus
aphasia means
language deficit
broca’s aphasia is the difficulty to
generate speech
wernick’s aphasia is the
lack of comprehension
conduction aphasia is the inability to
repeat words
types of problem solving
trial and error
algorithms
deductive / inductive reasoning
deductive reasoning
forms conclusions from rules
inductive reasonings
forms conclusions from evidence
mental set is the pattern of
approach for a given problem
the tendency to use objects only in the way they are normally utilized is
functional fixedness
heuristics =
“rules of thumb”
when we make our decisions based on how easily similar instances can be imagined =
availability heuristic
representativeness heuristic is the tendency to make
decisions about actions/events based on our standard representations of the events
confirmation bias is the tendency to focus on information that fits…
an individual’s beliefs while rejecting information that goes against those beliefs
Gardner’s Theory of 7 Multiple Intelligences
7 areas of intelligence
7 areas of intelligence
linguistic
logical-math
musical
visual-spatial
bodily-kinesthetic
interpersonal
intrapersonal
sequential order of brain waves
beta
alpha
theta
delta
BAT-D
sleep stage 1
LIGHT SLEEP
theta waves
stage 2 - sleep
slightly deeper
theta waves
sleep spindles/K complexes
decrease HR, respiration, temp
stages 3 and 4 - sleep
deep sleep
DELTA waves
slow-wave sleep (SWS)
most sleep disorders occur during
stages 3 and 4 and non-rapid eye movement (NREM) sleep
what hormone is released during sleep stages 3 and 4
GH
during REM sleep, the mind appears
awake on EEG
but person is asleep
what can occur during REM sleep
eye movements and body paralysis
waves during REM
beta
sleep cycle is how long
90 mins
sleep cycle stages pathway
1, 2, 3, 4, 3, 2, REM or
1,2,3,4-REM
circadian rhythm lasts
24 hrs
melatonin triggers
sleepiness during circadian rhythm
cortisol promotes
wakefulness during circadian rhythm
dreaming occurs mostly during
REM
activation-synthesis theory is where dreams results from
brain activation during REM sleep
activate in brainstem
synthesize in cortex
dyssomnias - sleep disorder
difficult to fall asleep, stay asleep, avoid sleep
includes insomnia, narcolepsy, sleep apnea
parasomnias is the
abnormal movements or behaviors during sleep
includes night terrors, sleepwalking
alertness is the state of being
awake and thinking
EEG shows what waves during alterness
BETA when alert
ALPHA when awake but tired, eyes closed
beta waves increase/decrease
increase frequency
decrease amplitude
alpha waves have synchronous
waves
hypnosis is when individuals appear to be in
normal control of their faculties but are in a highly suggestible state
what is hypnosis used for
pain control, psychological therapy, memory enhancement
meditation is the
quieting of the mind
used for relief or anxiety
depressants include
alcohol
barbiturates
benzodiazepines
increase GABA
amphetamines, cocaine, ecstacy are
stimulants
stimulants increase
dopamine
norepinephrine
serotonin at synaptic cleft
heroin, morphine, opium, oxycodone and hydrocodone are
opiods/opiates
opiods/opiates can cause death by
respiratory depression
hallucinogens include
LSD, peyote, mescaline, ketamine
what mediates drug addiction
mesolimbic pathway
mesolimbic pathway includes
nucleus accumbens
medial forebrain bundle
ventral tegmental area
dopamine is the main neurotransmitter in the
mesolimbic pathway
selective attention allows one to pay attention to
a particular stimulus while determining if additional stimuli in background require attention
divided attention uses
automatic processing to pay attention multiple activities at one time
purpose behind our actions is called
motivation
motivation can be
extrinsic and intrinsic
instincts are innate patterns of
behavior in response to stimuli
instinct theory is when people perform
certain behaviors b/c of evolutionarily programmed instincts
the state of being awake and reactive to stimuli is called
arousal
optimal arousal theory states that
optimal performance requires optimal arousal
arousal levels that are too low or high will
impede performance
internal states of tension that beget particular behaviors focused on goals is called
DRIVES
primary drives are related to
biological processes
secondary drives stem from
learning
drive reduction theory states that motivation arises from the desire to
eliminate drives, creating uncomfortable internal states
maslow’s hierarchy of needs
triangle that shows physiological needs make up base and self-actualization at the top
self-actualization is the
full realization of one’s talents and potential
self-determination theory emphasizes
three universal needs
autonomy, competence, relatedness
incentive theory explains motivation as the
desire to pursue rewards and avoid punishments
expectancy-value theory explains the amount of motivation for a task is based on
the expectation of success and value of that success
opponent-process theory explains motivation for drug use:
as drug use increases, body counteracts effects
opponent-process theory leads to
tolerance and uncomfortable withdrawal symptoms
house money effect states that
after a prior gain, people become more open to assuming risk
since new money is not treated as one’s own
gambler’s fallacy states that if something happens more frequently than normal…
i.t. will happen less frequently in the future or vice versa
prisoner’s dilemma states that two people act out of their own…
self-interest but if they had cooperated, result would be better
stress is the physiological and cognitive response to
challenges / life changes
primary appraisal is
classifying a potential stressor as irrelevant, benign-positive or stressful
secondary appraisal is the
evaluation if organism can cope w/ stress
anything that leads to a stress response is a
stressor
stressor can lead to
distress or eustress
3 stages of stress
alarm
resistance
exhaustion
involve both sympathetic NS and endocrine system
release of ACTH leads to
increased cortisol
emotion is a state of mind or feeling that is
subjectively experienced based on circumstances/mood/relationships
cognitive component of emotion =
subjective
physiology component of emotion =
changes in autonomic NS
behavior components of emotion =
facial expressions and body language
7 universal emotions
happiness
sadness
contempt
surprise
fear
disgust
anger
james-lange theory is when
behavioral and physiological actions lead to emotions
e.g. power posing
cannon-bard theory is when
emotional and physiological responses to a stimulus occur simultaneously
emotional and physiological responses arrive from
separate and independent areas of brain as a part of the cannon-bard theory
schacter-singer theory explains the
two factor emotion theory
physiological arousal and interpretation of context (or “cognitive label”) leads to emotion
limbic system is concerned with
insticnts and mood
self-concept is the sum of ways…
we describe ourselves
identities is the individual components of our
self concept related to the group to which we belong
self-esteem is how closer our ACTUAL self is
to our IDEAL self and our OUGHT self (who others want to be)
self-efficacy is the degree to which we see ourselves as
being capable at a given skill or situation
learned helplessness is a state of
hopelessness resulting from being able to avoid repeated negative stimuli
internal locus of control
we control our own success/failure
external locus of control
outside factors have more control
psychosexual stages of personality development is based on
tensions caused by the libido
failure at any stages of the psychosexual stages of personality development leads to
personality disorder
freud’s psychosexual stages of personal development
0 –> 1 ORAL
1 –> 3 ANAL
3 –> 6 PHALLIC
6 –> puberty LATENT
puberty –> adult GENITAL
erikson’s stages stem from
conflicts throughout life
erikson’s stages
0 –> 1 trust vs. mistrust
1 –> 3 autonomy vs shame
3 –> 6 initiative vs guilt
6 –> 12 industry vs inferiority
12 –> 20 indeitity vs role confusion
20 –> 40 intimacy vs isolation
40 –> 65 generativity vs stagnation
65 –> death integrity vs despair
kohlberg’s stages are based on
moral dilemma
6 stages in 3 phases
vygotsky is responsible for
zone of proximal development
zone of proximal development is the skills that
a child has not yet mastered and require a more knowledgeable other to accomplish
imitation and role-taking are the
common ways children learn from others
reference group is the group to which
we compare ourselves
psychoanalytic perspective are personality results from
unconscious urges and desires
freud, jung, adler, horney
ID is the
base urges of survival and reproduction
part of freud’s theory
superego is the
idealist and perfectionist
part of freud’s theory
ego is the
mediator between the two and the conscious mind
part of freud’s theory
the ego uses what to reduce stress
defense mechanisms
id, superego, ego operate in the
unconscious
at least in part
jung states that the
collective unconscious links all humans together
personality is influenced by
archetypes
as per JUNG
adler and horney states that the unconscious is
motivated by social urges
humanistic perspective emphasizes the internal feelings of
healthy individuals as they strive for happiness and self-realization
what flow from the humanistic view of personality
maslow’s hierarchy of needs
rogers’s unconditional positive regard flow
type and trait theory states that personality can be
described by identifiable traits that carry characteristic behaviors
type theories include
ancient greek humors
sheldon’s somatotypes
divisions into type A and type B
Myer’s Brigg’s type inventory
PEN stands for
Psychoticism (nonconformity)
Extraverison (sociable)
Neuroticism (arousal in stressful situations)
part of trait theories
3 basic traits of personality include
cardinal traits
central traits
secondary traits
big five personality traits
openess
conscientiousness
extraversion
agreeableness
neuroticism
OCEAN
cardinal traits are the trait around which
a person organizes their life
central traits are traits that describe
major characteristics of personality
secondary traits are traits that are more
personal and limited in occurence
social cognitive perspective describes how individuals react with their…
environment in a cycle called RECIPROCAL DETERMINISM
environments are molded according to individual personalities and vice versa
people mold their environments according to their
personality
environments molded by personality can in turn
shape their thoughts/feelings/behaviors
behaviorist perspective means that our personality develops as a result of
operant conditioning
e.g. reward and punishment based
biological perspective states that behavior can be explained as
a result of genetic expression
kohlberg stages of moral development
pre-conventional –> conventional –> post-conventional
pre-conventional stage
“i must share this toy b/c if i don’t, i will get in trouble”
conventional stage
“you need to drive slower b/c the law says so!”
post-conventional stage
“just because the law says to do it doesn’t mean it is ethical”
schizophrenia is a
prototypical disorder w/ psychosis
schizophrenia - positive symptoms
ADD something to behavior/cognition/affect
e.g. delusions or hallucinations
schizophrenia negative symptoms
LOSS of something
e.g. disturbances of affect and avolition
major depressive disorder has at least
one MAJOR depressive episode
persistent depressive disorder
dysthymia for at least two years
doesn’t mean criteria for major depressive disorder
seasonal affective disorder (SAD) occurs in the
winter
bipolar I includes
at least one manic episode
bipolar II includes
at least one hypomanic episode and at least one major depressive episode
cyclothymic disorder
hypomanic episodes w/ dysthymia
anxiety disorders include phobias, GAD and….
social anxiety
agoraphobia
panic disorder
obsessions
persistent intrusive thoughts + impulses
part of OCD
compulsions are repetitive
tasks that relieve tension but cause impairment in a person’s life
part of OCD
body dysmorphic disorder is the
unrealistic neg evaluation of one’s appearance
PTSD is the intrusive symptoms such as
flashbacks, nightmares
avoidance symptoms, negative cognitive symptoms and arousal symptoms
dissociative amnesia is where a person can’t
recall past experiences
dissociative fugue is the
assumption of a new identity
dissociative identity disorder
MULTIPLE personalities
personalization/derealization disorder
feeling detached from mind and body or environment
somatic symptom disorder
somatic symptom causes disproportionate concern
illness anxiety disorder is the preoccupation with
thoughts about having or coming down with illness
conversion disorder is associated with….
prior trauma involving unexplained symptoms resulting in loss of body function
hypochondriasis is aka
illness anxiety disorder
one strongly believes he or she has a serious illness despite few to no symptoms
personality disorders are patterns of
inflexible, maladaptive behavior that cause distress or impaired function
CLUSTER A
“weird”
paranoid, schizotypal, schizoid
CLUSTER B
“wild”
antisocial, borderline, histrionic, narcissistic
CLUSTER C
“worried”
avoidant, dependent, OCD
behavioral approach is the
classical and operant conditioning shapes the disorder
biomedical approach takes into
account only physical and medical causes
biopsychosocial approach considers relative
contributions of biological, psychological and social comoponents
psychodynmaic approach related to
freud’s psychoanalysis
DSM-5 is the
diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (5th edition)
DSM categorizes
mental disorders based on symptoms
schizophrenia - bio basis
genetic factors
birth trauma
marijuana use
family history
depression - bio basis
increase glucocorticoids
reduce noriepinephrine, serotonin and dopamine
bipolar disorders - bio basis
increase norepinephrine and serotonin
ALSO HERITABLE
alzheimer’s - bio basis
genetic factors
brain atrophy
reduce acetylcholine
senile plaques of beta-amyloid
parkinson’s - bio basis
bradykinesia
resting tremor
pil-rolling tremor
masklike facies
cogwheel rigidity
shuffling gait
DECREASE dopamine
social facilitation describes the tendency of
people to perform at a different level when others are around
deindividuation is a loss of
self-awareness in large groups
bystander effector describes the phenomenon of when
in a group, individuals are less likely to respond to a person in need
peer pressure is the social influence placed on
individuals by others they consider equals
social loafing is when an individual does not
pull their weight in a group setting
polarization is the tendency toward
making decisions in a group that are more extreme
groupthink is the tendency for groups to make decisions based on
ideas and solutions arising within group without considering outside ideas
culture comprises of the
beliefs/ideas/behaviors/actions/characteristics of a group or society
assimilation is the process by which an
immigrant/minority takes up elements of mainstream culture
takes a specific type of socialization
to experience assimilation, a person must
first have their own culture and then absorb elements of a new culture
multiculturalism is the encouragement of
multiple cultures within a community to enhance diversity
subcultures describe a group of people within a culture that
distinguishes themselves from the primary culture
attitudes describes the tendencies towards
expression of positive or negative feeling/evaluations of something
3 components of attitude
affective
behavioral
cognition
functional attitudes theory states that there are
four functional areas of atittudes
knowledge, ego expression, adaptability, ego defense
learning theory states that attitudes are developed through forms of
learning
direct contact, direct interaction, direct instruction, conditioning
elaboration likelihood model states that atittudes are formed and changed through
different routes of info process based on degrees of elaboration
elaboration likelihood model
central routing processing
peripheral route processing
social congitive theory states that attitudes are formed through
watching others, personal factors, environment
people change their behavior or attitudes based on
OBSERVATION
socialization is the process of
internalizing the social norms and values expected in one’s society
positive sanctions
reward for a certain behavior
negative sanctions
punishment for a certain behavior
formal sanction
an official reward or punishment
informal sanction
a sanction that is not enforced or punished by an authority but occurs in everyday interactions
e.g. asking someone to lower their voice in a movie theater
norms determine the boundaries of
acceptable behavior within a society
mores are informal norms with…
major importance for society and if broken, can result in severe sanctions
e.g. drug abuse is not socially acceptable
folkways
informal norms
less significant yet still shape our everyday behavior
e.g. holding a door open for someone
taboos are
considered unacceptable by almost every culture
e.g. cannibalism, incest
stigma is the extreme disapproval or dislike of a
person/group based on perceived difference from society
deviance is the
violation of norms/rule/expectations in society
differential association theory states that deviance can be learned through
our interactions w/ others
people commit crimes in part because of
their associations w/ other people
conformity is the changing beliefs/behaviors
in order to fit into a group/society
compliance is when individuals change their
behavior based on requests of others
obedience is a change in behavior based on
command from someone seen as an authority figure
status is a position in society used to
classify individuals
ascribed status is the involuntary
assignment for an individual based on race/gender/ethnicity/etc
achieved status is
voluntarily earned by an individual
master status is the status by which
an individual is primarily identified
role is a set of beliefs, values and norms that
define the expectations of a certain status in a social situation
role performance refers to carrying out
behaviors of a given role
role partner is when another individual who helps
define a specific role within the relationship
role set is a set of
all roles associated w/ a status
role conflict is the
difficulty managing MULTIPLE roles
role strain is the difficulty
managing JUST ONE role
groups are
2+ people w/ similar characteristics sharing a sense of unity
peer group is a
self-selected group around shared interests
family group is the groups to which
you are born, adopted, or married
affinal kinship is when
individuals are related by choice
e.g. marriage
consanguineous kinship means
relation through blood
in-group
group you are in
out-group
group you compete w/ or oppose
reference group
group you compared yourself to
primary group
those that contain strong emotional bonds
secondary group
often temporary
contain weaker bonds overall
gemeinschaft
COMMUNITY
gesellschaft
SOCIETY
network is an observable pattern of….
social relationships b/w individuals/groups
organization is a group with
identifiable membership that engages in a certain action to achieve a common purpose
bureaucracy is a rational system of
administration, discipline, control
max weber gave i.t. six defining characteristics
iron law of oligarchy is
democratic or bureaucratic systems naturally shifting to being ruled by an elite group
sect is a religious group that
arose from a split from a larger religion
basic model of expressing emotions states that there are
universal emotion/expressions understood across cultures
social construction model of expressing emotion states that emotions are
solely based on situational context of social interactions
display rules are
unspoken rule governing expression of emotions
impression management refers to the maintenance of….
a public image accomplished through various strategies
flattery, boating, managing appearances, ingratiation, aligning actions, alter-casting are part of
IMPRESSION MANAGMENT
dramaturgical approach is how people create images of
themselves in the same way that actors perform a role in front of an audience
front stage
where you are seen by an audience
back stage
you are not in front of the audience
nonverbal communication
communicating through means other than the use of words
e.g. body language, prosody, gestures
animal communication takes place not only between
animals but between humans and other animals as well
animals use what to communicate
body language, facial expressions, visual displays, scents, vocalizations to communicate
weber’s ideal bureaucracy
career orientation
impersonality
formal rules and regulations
formal selection
division of labor
authority hierarchy
interpersonal attraction is what makes people
like each other
interpersonal attraction is influenced by
physical attractiveness, similarity of thoughts and physical traits, self-disclosure, reciprocity, proximity
aggression is
physical/verbal/nonverbal behaviors w/ the intention to cause harm + increase social dominance
attachement
emotional bond to another person
usually refers to the bond b/w child and caregiver
secure attachment requires a
constant caregiver
e.g. child shows preference for caregiver compared to strangers
avoidant attachment occurs when a caregiver has
little to no response to a distressed child
e.g. child shows no preference for the caregiver compared to strangers
ambivalent attachment occurs when a caregiver has an
inconsistent response to a child’s distress (sometimes responding appropriately or sometimes neglectful)
example of ambivalent attachment
child will become distressed when caregiver leaves/is ambivalent when he or she returns
disorganized attachment occurs when a
caregiver is erratic or abusive
e.g. child shows no clear pattern of behavior in response to caregiver’s absence/presence
social perception is the way by which we
generate impressions about people in our social environment
social perception contains a
perceiver, target, situation
social capital is the practice of
developing and maintaining relationships that form social networks willing to help each other
implicit personal theory
when you meet somebody for the first time, we pick up on one of their characteristics
we then assume their other traits
cognitive biases
primacy effect
recency effect
reliance on central traits
halo effect
just-world hypothesis
self-serving bias
social support is the perception or reality that
one is cared for by a social network
emotional support
listening to/affirming/empathizing with someone’s feelings
esteem support affirms
the qualities and skills of the person
material support
providing physical / monetary support
information support
providing useful info to a person
foraging
searching for / exploiting food resources
mating system describes the way
in which a group is organized in terms of sexual behavior
monogamy
exclusive mating relationships
polygamy
a person having multiple exclusive relationships
polygyny
male w/ multiple females
polyandry
female w/ multiple males
promiscuity
no exclusivity
mater choice
intersexual selection
selection of a mate based on attraction and traits
altruism is a helping behavior in which
the person’s intent is to benefit someone else at some cost to him/herself
game theory attempts to explain
decision making b/w individuals as if they are participating in a game
inclusive fitness is a measure of an organism’s success in the population based on
how well it propagates its own genes
inclusive fitness also includes the
ability of those offspring to then support others
attribution theory focuses on the tendency for
individuals to infer causes of other people’s behavior
dispositional is
the internal causes of behavior
situational
surrounding or context cause behavior
correspondent inference theory focuses on the
intentionality of a person’s behavior
e.g. when someone does something that hurts/helps us, we form a dispositional attribution
the action is correlated to the person’s personality
fundamental attribution error is the bias toward making
dispositional attribution rather than situational attributions in regard to the actions of others
attribution substitution occurs whe individuals must make
judgements that are complex but instead substitute a simpler solution/heuristic
actor-observer bias is the tendency to attribute
your own actions to external causes and others’ actions to dispositional causes
stereotypes are
cognitive
occur when attitudes/impressions are made based on limited/superficial info
self-fulfilling prophecy are when stereotypes lead to expectations and….
those expectations create conditions that lead to stereotype confirmation
stereotype threat is the
concern/anxiety about confirming a negative stereotype about one’s social group
prejudice is
irrational pos/neg attitude toward a person/group/thing prior to an actual experience
ethnocentrism refers to the practice of
making judgements about other cultures based on values/beliefs of one’s own culture
cultural relativism refers to the recognition that
social groups and cultures should be studied on their own terms
discrimination is
behavioral
when prejudicial attitudes cause individuals of a particular group to be treated differently from others
functionalism focuses on the function of
each part of society
manifest functions is the
deliberate actions that serve to help a given system
latent functions
unexpected, uninterested or unrecognized consequences of manifest actions
conflict theory is based on
works by karl marx
conflict theory focuses on how
power differentials are created and contribute to maintaining social order
conflict theory explains how groups compete
for resources to attain power/superiority
conflict sociology is the study
of the way that distinct groups compete for resources
symbolic interactionism is the study of the ways individuals interact
through a shared understanding of words, gestures and other symbols
“meaning” of social symbols
microsociology is the study of
expressions/symbolic gestures and other small individual components of a society
social constructionism explores the ways in which
individuals and groups make decisions to agree upon a given social reality
social constructionism is the “value” placed on
certain social constructs
social constructivism focuses on altering that constructed view
rational choice theory states that individuals will
make decisions that max benefit, minimize harm
expectancy theory applies
rational choice theory within groups
feminist theory explores the ways in wich
one gender can be subordinated
social institutions are
well-established social structures that dictate certain patterns of behaviors or relationships
4 tenets of medicine
beneficence
nonmaleficence
respect for autonomy
justice
demographics
stats of populations such as ageism, gender, race, ethnicity, sexual orientation, immigration
fertility rate =
avg number of children born to a woman during her lifetime in a population
birth and mortality rate
measured as number of births/deaths per 1000 people per year
migration is the
movement of people from one location to another
ethnic migrants emigrate to more
industrialized countries that have increased fertility and morality rates compared to industrialized nation’s population
demographic transition is a model used to represent
drops in birth and death rates as a result of industrialization
social movement are organized to
either promote (proactive) or resist (reactive) social change
globalization is the process of
integration a global economy w/ free trade and tapping of foreign labor markets
urbanization is the process of
dense areas of population creating a pull for migration
culture encompasses the
lifestyle of a group of people
material culture refers to the
physical objects/resources/spaces that people use to define their culture
symbolic culture includes the
ideas associated w/ cultural group
cultural lag is the idea that
material culture changes more quickly than symbolic culture
language is the
spoken/written symbols combined into a system
value is what a person
deems important in life
belief is something a
person considers to be true
ritual is a
formal ceremonial behavior usually includes symbolism
norms
societal rules defining boundaries of acceptable behavior
social stratification is the system by which society ranks
categories of people into a hierarchy
functionalism states that
social stratification is necessary and results from the need for those w/ a special intelligence/knowledge/skills to be part of important occupations
HARMONIOUS EQUILIBRIUM
ascribed status is
involuntary
derives from clearly identifiable characteristics such as age and gender
achieved status is the
acquired through direct and individual efforts
social class is a
category of people w/ shared socioeconomic characteristics
prestige is the
respect and importance tied to specific occuptions/associations
power is the capacity to
influence people
anome is the
lack of social norms
breakdown of social bonds b/w individuals and society
strain theory focuses on how
anomic conditions can lead to deviance
reinforces social stratification
social capital is the benefits provided by
social networks
investment people make in society in returns for rewards
meritocracy is the advancement up
the social ladder based on intellectual talent and achievement
social mobility allows one to acquire higher-level employment opportunities
by achieving required credentials/experience
absolute poverty
when one can’t acquire basic life necessities
relative poverty
when one is poor in comparison to larger population
relative deprivation theory is when people seek to
acquire something that others possess and which they believe they should have too
RELATIVE
social reproduction is the passing of
social inequality esp poverty from one generation to the next
social exclusion is the sense of powerlessness when
individuals feel alienated from society
spatial inequality is the
social stratification across territories
globalization is the integration of one’s economy to include
foreign societies
increases poverty –> production shifts to cheaper labor markets
incidence is the
number of new cases of a disease per population at risk
prevalence is the number of
cases of a disease per population
mortality is the deaths caused by
a given disease
morbidity is the
burden or degree of illness associated w/ a given disease
ACA attempts to
increase health insurance coverage rates and reduce cost of health care
medicare covers
people 65+
esp those w/ end-stage renal disease and those with ALS
medicaid covers
patients in significant financial need
theory of primary mental abilities include: word fluency, verbal comprehension, spatial visualization and…
number facility
associative memory
reasoning
perceptual speed
jung’s theory of collective unconscious states that personality is influenced by
archetypes
links all humans together
social urges are the motivation for
adler and horney’s theory of personality
erikson’s generativity vs stagnation state of psychosocial development is from age
40 to 65
a child that displays kohlberg’s conventional morality will
care for others and obey rules simply because they exist
preconventional stage of kohlberg’s morality
avoid punishments
obtain rewards
kohlberg’s convention stage of morality states that children will
obey rules because they exist
erikson’s trust vs mistrust stage of psychosocial development is at what ages
0 to 1
erikson’s autonomy vs shame stage
1 to 3
erikson’s initiative vs guilt stage
3 to 6
erikson’s industry vs inferiority stage
6 to 12
erikson’s identity vs role confusion stage
12 to 20
erikson’s intimacy vs isolation stage
20 to 40
erikson’s generativity vs stagnation stage
40 to 65
erikson’s integrity vs despair stage
65 to death
erikson’s 8 stages of psychosocial development stem from….
CONFLICTS throughout life
what did Jung blieve influences personality?
archetypes
what do archetypes do as per Jung’s theory of collective unconscious
LINKS all humans together
kohlberg’s postconventional morality
adulthood
make/keep promises + live moral imperatives
indirect discrimination is
“neutral” recruitment practices that discriminate an ethnic group
e.g. recruiting employees through their family connections
past-in-present discrimination is when
“neutral” practices have negative effect because of the past
e.g. recruitment of an ethnic group to inferior jobs goes on in the present
side effect discrimination is discrimination in…
one sphere producing discrimination in another
e.g. discrimination in education can produce discrimination in employment
adler and horney’s theory of personality states (what) motivates our unconscious?
SOCIAL URGES
during sleep stage 1, what kind of waves appear on EEG
theta
during sleep stage 2, what kind of waves appear on EEG
theta
what kind of waves appear on the EEG during stages 3 and 4
delta waves
during rapid eye movement, what kind of waves appear
BETA since the mind appears awake on EEG
mnemonic for 5 personality traits
OCEAN
openness
conscientiousness
extraversion
agreeableness
neuroticism
what is type theory?
belief that a peron’s personality can be quantified into a few unique categories
type theory categories
ancient greek humors
sheldon’s somatotypes
divisions in type a and type b
myers-briggs type inventory
cardinal/central/secondary traits are part of what theory
gordon allport’s trait theory
cardinal traits are traits where
a person organizes their life
central traits are characteristics that are
major to one’s personality
secondary traits are more…
personal characteristics and limited in occurrence
behaviorist perspective of personality states that our personality develops because of
operant conditioning
three dimensions of personality by hans eysenck
psychoticism
extraversion
neuroticism
PEN
psychoticism is
NONCONFORMITY
extraversion is
socialibility
neuroticism is
arousal in stressful situations
7 universal emotions
happiness
surprise
sadness
fear
disgust
contempt
anger
social cognitive perspective of personality states that individuals…
react with their environment in a cycle called reciprocal determinism
people mold their environments according to
their personality
and their environments shape their thoughts/feelings/behaviors
discrete emotion theory is the claim that
there is a small number of core, discreet emotions
explain prototype willingness model
evaluation (attractiveness or unattractiveness) of the risk prototype shapes willingness to engage in the behavior
what disorders are characterized by physical symptoms that are brought out by psychological stress?
somatic symptom disorders
somatic symptom disorders are when a person feels
extreme anxiety about physical symptoms such as pain or fatigue
illness anxiety disorder is having an
obsession with the idea of having a serious but undiagnosed medical condition
aka hypochondriasis
conversion disorder involves (what) that results in body function loss
unexplained symptoms
associated w/ prior trauma
explain global aphasia
type of aphasia when brain damage is extensive enough to involve both broca and wernicke’s areas
survivors w/ global aphasia are
unable to understand spoken language or speak
cannon-bard theory of emotion states that
emotional and physiological responses to a stimulus must occur simultaneously
arise from separate + independent areas of the brain
GABA inhibits a neuron by allowing (what) to enter the neuron and this (does what) the cell
Cl-
hyperpolarizes
cyclothymic disorders includes at least
two years (1 year for children) of many periods of depressive symptoms
less severe than major depression
cluster A of the personality disorders is called the
odd/eccentric/”weird” cluster
cluster A includes
paranoid personality disorder
schizoid personality disorder
schizotypal personality disorder
cluster B of the personality disorders is called the
“wild” one
cluster C of the personality disorders is called the
“worried” one
cluster B includes
antisocial personality disorder
borderline personality disorder
histrionic personality disorder
narcissistic personality disorder
cluster C includes
avoidant personality disorder
dependent personality disorder
obsessive compulsive personality disorder
strong linguistic determinism states that
language determines thought completely
aka Sapir-Whorfian hypothesis
Treisman’s attenuation theory proposes that incoming info is
restricted at some point in processing so only a portion of the information gets through to consciousness
Deutsch and Deutsch late selection theory states that all information undergoes….
analysis for meaning
after such analysis, selection of a sensory input takes place
somatosensation refers to the four touch modalities
pressure
vibration
pain
temperature
social cognitive perspective of personality states that
individuals react w/ their environment in a cycle called RECIPROCAL DETERMINISM
people mold their environment according to their
personality
linguistic determinism is the idea that language and its structures…
limit and determine human knowledge and thought
explain what a linguistic universal is
pattern that occurs systematically across natural languages
low nicotine has what kind of effect
depressant effect
high doses of nicotine has a
stimulant effect
social loafing is when an individual….
does not pull his or her weight in a group setting
attitude to behavior process model states that behaviors stem from…
individuals’ perceptions of an attitude object and a situation in which the attitude object is encountered
cochlea –> vestibulocochlear nerve –>
MGN –> auditory cortex
what differentiates token economy from secondary reinforcement?
token economy DOES NOT involve trading in secondary reinforcers for a desirable reward
operant conditioning occurs when
the likelihood of repeating a behavior is influenced by the outcome of that behavior
classical conditioning occurs when
a neutral stimulus takes on the properties of a biologically arousing stimulus after being paired
primary reinforcers are naturally
rewarding
e.g. food
secondary reinforcers are conditioned to be
desirable
e.g. money
group polarization occurs when
group members adopt a more extreme attitude or course of action AFTER GROUP DISCUSSION
group polarization is more likely to OCCUR IF
group members have similar opinions before group discussion
group discussion does what to result in…
strengthen/reconfirms individual opinions
results in an avg viewpoint that is MORE EXTREME
group polarization can occur in
every direction
extremely positive or negative
what is groupthink?
when a group arrives at an incorrect/irrational decision b/c group members value getting along more than critical evaluation of alternatives
LESS OPTIONS CONSIDERED
groupthink is more likely to occur in
groups that have strong/well-liked leaders
INACCURATE GROUP DECISIONS OCCUR
social loafing occurs when
a person exerts less effort as a member of a group than when alone
people come up with more options when alone
intersectionality describes how
individuals hold multiple interconnected social identities that imapct their lives/povs/treatment in society
racialization is the process by which
one group designates another group with a racial identity often based on shared group qualities
cultural transmission describes
the passing of cultural info from one generation to the next
social stratification refers to
a system of inequality in society where individuals are group into hierarchical social categories
difference between caste and class system
social mobility is easier in class system
confounding variables are
uncontrolled variables that have an effect on the independent and/or dependent variable
teacher expectancy effect describes
what occurs when a teacher’s preconceived ideas about a student result in students meeting teacher’s expectations
social construction model of expressing emotion states that
NO biological basis for emotion
emotion is based on EXPERIENCE AND CONTEXT
iron law of oligarchy states that
democratic or bureaucratic systems naturally shift to being ruled by an elite group
retrieval is often based on
priming interconnected nodes of the semantic network
in iconic memory experiments, what technique requires patients to recall as many elements from the original visual display?
WHOLE REPORT TECHNIQUE
what is agraphia?
acquired neurological disorder causing a loss in the ability to communicate through writing
from some form of motor dysfunction / inability to spell
normative organizations have membership based on
shared goals and/or values
utilitarian organizations have memberships…
driven by compensation
i.e. money or certification/diplomas
coercive organizations have memberships that are…
not freely chosen and/or maintained
what is agnosia?
loss of ability to recognize objects/people/sounds
what is the cause for agnosia usually
physical damage
the dual coding hypothesis states that
visual and verbal information is coded separately in our brains
the dual coding hypothesis states that it is easier to
remember words when they are associated with images
optimism bias is the belief that
bad things happen to others but NOT TO US
what is associated with the temporal lobe?
sound, speech perception, memory, emotion
what is role set
set of all roles that are associated w/ one status
which types of memory are transient and based on neurotransmitter activity?
sensory memory
short term memory
house money effect
after a prior gain, people become more open to assuming risk since the new money is not treated as one’s own
drive reduction theory states that
people are motivated to take certain actions in order to reduce the internal tensions that is caused by unmet needs
past in present discrimination is
discrimination from the past that is still affecting people today
reticular formation is responsible for what
motor control
sensory control
visceral control
control of consciousness
located in central core of brain stem
sound –> microphone –> transmitter (outside skull) –> receiver (inside skull) –>
stimulator —> cochlea —> electrical impulse
covariation model states that there are
3 types of casual info which influence our judgements
consensus, distinctiveness, consistency
semantic coding is
a specific type of encoding in which the meaning of something is encoded as opposed to the sound or vision of it
semantic coding is stronger than…
acoustic and visual encoding
linguistic universalism theory states that humans
share a kind of “psychic unity”
language is merely a
reflection of human thought and nothing more
an EEG shows what kind of waves when you are awake but tired and eyes are closed
ALPHA
what is a schemata used for
to organize current knowledge and provide a framework for future understanding
why is there a blind spot in the eye?
it’s the spot where the optic nerve connects to the retina
assortative mating is when individuals with
similar phenotypes mate with one another more frequently (as opposed to a random mating pattern)
stapes is the…
“stirrup”
footplate of stapes rests in oval window of cochlea
parasomnias are conditions that cause
abnormal movements or behaviors during sleep
i.e. night terrors and sleepwalking
sensory ganglia are what and do what?
enlargements along peripheral nerves
transmits signals to CNS
han eysenck’s 3 dimensions of personality
PEN
p - nonconformity
e - sociability
n - arousal in stressful situations
james-lange theory of emotion states that
behavioral and physiological actions lead to emotions
evolutionary game theory applies
game theory to evolving populations in biology
example of evolutionary game theory
hawks (aggressive)
dove (mild)
phases of psychosis
prodrome
acute phase
recovery
schizophrenia prodromal symptoms include
various mood changes such as anxiety, depression, mood swings, sleep disturbances, irritability, anger, suicidal ideas
extinction burst refers to
one’s rxn to a stimulus that used to product positive reinforcements
but now ceases to exist
rxn will increase in an attempt to bring reward back
what is the macula
oval shaped pigmented area in the retina that contains a VERY HIGH concentration of cones BUT NO RODS
what kind of cells integrate signals from ganglion cells?
horizontal and amacrine cells
perform edge-sharpening
threshold of conscious perception is the
minimum stimulus energy that will create a signal large enough in size and long enough in duration to be brought into awareness
what does the sapir whorfian hypothesis state
language determines thought completely
opposite of relativism
intragenerational movement
within one generation that a person moves from one social class to another
part of social mobility
intergenerational movement
movement between generations
whorfian hypothesis states that
lens by which we view and interpret the world is created by language
aka linguistic relativity
master status is the
social position that is the primary identifying characteristic of an individual
can be achieved or ascribed
random mating describes the
ideal situation in which all individuals of one sex are equally potential partners of all members of the opposite sex
random mating is one of the requirements for the
randy weinberg law to hold true
what states there is no bio basis for emotion bc emotions are based on experience and context
social construction of expressing emotion
prevalence is the
frequency of existing cases
incidence is the
frequency of new cases
what is apraxia
motor disorder caused by damage to the brain in which the individual has difficulty with motor planning to perform tasks
examples of dyssomnias
insomnia
narcolepsy
sleep apnea
availability heuristic is a
mental shortcut relying on immediate examples that come to a person’s mind when evaluating a situation
diffusion of responsibility is a phenomenon where
a person is less likely to take responsibility for action or inaction when others are present
prefrontal cortex is responsible for
logical thinking
during REM sleep, activity in the prefrontal cortex increases or decreases
DECREASES
yerkes-dodson law suggests that there is a
relationship b/w performance and arousal
increased arousal can help
improve performance but only up to a certain point
limbic system deals with
emotions, memories, and arousal (or stimulation)
part of forebrain
encoding specificity is a principle that states that
human memories are more easily retrieved if external conditions at the time of retrival are similar to those at the time the memory was stored
facets of the encoding specificity principle
mood congruence
state-dependent retrieval
mood congruence is the idea that if you
experience something while you’re in a particular mood, you are more likely to think of i.t. again when you are in the same mood
state-dependent retrieval is the tendency to
remember something better if your body is in the same condition during recall as it was during the original learning
correspondent inference theory refers to when
an observer assumes that a person’s behavior matches or corresponds with the person’s personality traits
opsins are a
group of proteins, made light-sensitive via the chromophore retinal found in photoreceptor cells of the retina
rods have
rhodopsin
cones have
photopsin
means-end analysis states that
one solves an issue by considering the problems that standing between the initial problem and endgoal
displacement is a
defense mechanism where you take your frustration/feelings/impulses on people or objects that are less threatening
what is the racial formation theory
linking social structure and stratification to common ideas/assumptions about race and racial categories
what receives all sensory input from the body?
somatosensory cortex
located in parietal lobe
damage to the arcuate fasciculus results in
conduction aphasia
something with (what) can’t repeat words
conduction aphasia
theory of planned behavior states that
we consider the implications of our actions before deciding how to behave
subjective norms are what we
think others think about our behavior
perceived behavioral control is how
easy/hard we think it is to control our behavior
what theory states that we must first think about your situation before experiencing emotion
lazarus theory of emotion
what is a framework for thinking about a problem?
mental set
can be shaped by habit or by desire
what behavior is motivated by a desire for reinforcement or incentives?
incentive theory
Deutsch & Deutsch late selection theory states that
all information (unattended and attended) undergoing analysis for meaning
fixation refers to the
inability to see a problem from a fresh persepective
dimensional approach to emotion refers to how people
experience their emotions
as per what approach, emotions are measured in dimensions such as arousal and valence
DIMENSIONAL approach
opposite of dimensional approach
discrete emotion theory
states there is a small number of core emotions
what is reticular formation responsible for?
motor control
sensory control
visceral control
control of consciousness
where is the reticular formation located
central core of brain stem
process by which individuals evaluate and cope w/ a stressful event
stress appraisal
primary appraisal classified a
potential stressor as irrelevant, benign-positive or stressful
secondary appraisal is the evaluating if
the organism can cope w/ the stress
what theory states that attitudes are formed through watching others/personal factors/environment
social cognitive theory
what is the cerebellum responsible for
receives info from the sensory systems, spinal cord and other parts of the brain
regulates motor movements
what does oxytocin do
helps partners bond and feel connected post-orgasm
fixed ratio means
reinforcement depends on definite number of responses
fixed ratio outcome
activity slows after reinforcement then picks up
variable ratio meaning
number of responses needed for reinforcement varies
variable ratio outcome
greatest activity of all schedules
fixed interval meaning
reinforcement depends on a fixed time
fixed interval outcome
activity increases as deadline nears
variable interval meaning
time b/w reinforcement varies
variable interval outcome
steady activity results
when your head moves around, the endolymph inside the…
semicircular canals sloshes around and moves the tiny hairs that line each canal
sleep stage 1
light sleep
can be woken up easily
sleep stage 2
eye movement and brain activity slowing down
sleep stage 3
delta waves begin to appear
stage 4 of sleep
deep sleep
difficult to wake up
REM stage
breathing becomes more rapid and irregular
explain the social cognitive perspective
individuals react w/ their environment in a cycle called reciprocal determinism
explain the psychodynamic approach
human functioning is based upon the interaction of drives and forces within the person (particularly the unconscious)
what is deviance?
violation of norms/rules/expectations in a society
positive deviance is possible
implicit personality theory states that
when we look at somebody for the first time, we pick up on one of their characteristics + assume their other traits based on that
ciliary body is the part of the eye that includes the
ciliary muscle which controls the lens shape and the ciliary epithelium (produces aqueous humor)
labeling theory proposes deviance is
socially constructed through rxn instead of action
according to this theory: behavior is inherently deviant on its own
extinction burst refers to one’s rxn to a
stimulus that used to produce positive reinforcements but now ceases to exist
reaction will INCREASE to bring reward back
someone that displays Kohlberg’s postconventional morality focuses on
basic ethical principles to guide their behavior
priming is the
implicit memory effect in which exposure to a stimulus influences a response to a later stimulus
positive priming does what
speeds up processing
negative priming does what
causes you to ignore a stimulus
