US presidency Flashcards

Question

Explain constitutionally what is the president's cabinet?

Answer 1

Constitutionally, the cabinet has no formal powers as cabinets are not mentioned in the constitution. However, article 2 does state that the President 'may require the opinion of the principal officer in each of the executive departments upon any subject relating to the duties of their respective office' With all executive power vested in 'a President', the cabinet is simply an advisory body for the president. Despite this, every president since 1793 has had a cabinet. Originally with just four members: State, War Treasury and Post office - now cabinet consists of the heads of 15 departments, the president, the vice-president and other cabinet-level executives as the President sees fit. The additional members that a president chooses are often reflective either of his policy priorities or of the national circumstances in which he takes over. For example in January 2012, Obama announced that he was elevating the administrator of the Small Business Administration, Karen Millis to cabinet status by doing this, he was signalling the importance of small businesses in promoting economic recovery

Answer 2

It is difficult to recruit cabinet members from members of congress, so the president will include a variety of roles and jobs for the effective working of government Bush's cabinet: Secretary of state, secretary of Treasury, Secretary of Defence Attorney General, Secretary of the Interior. ADDITIONAL CABINET MEMBERS: - president - vice president - chief of staff - Environment protection agency - Office of Management and Budget - Office of National Drug control policy - United States Trade Representatives

Answer 3

For the president, it is difficult to recruit cabinet members from incumbent members of congress as they must resign from congress where they have prestige and job security. EXECUTIVE EXPERIENCE - This means the president will usually draw cabinet members from former members of congress or through recruiting state governor and big city mayors. They both have executive experience and are suited to the running a large federal bureaucracy. ACADEMIA/ACADEMIC and ECONOMIC EXPERIENCE - Academia is another pool of recruitment for the cabinet such as professors from top universities e.g. Steven Chu, appointed by Obama as secretary of energy in 2009, was professor of physics at the University of California. Essentially, a president is looking for policy specialists through offering opinions on policy and lending support to the president in his policy objectives. Tim Geithner was Obama's choice for secretary of the Treasury, having previously been the president of the Federal Reserve Bank of New York. This experienced allowed Geithner to make policy suggestions as the Obama administration dealt with the recession that America was facing after the 2007 economic crash. He introduced the Financial Stability Plan, committing billions to a 'lending initiative' to try and boost the economy while requiring that banks undergo 'stress tests' to ensure that they could withstand and even prevent a future economic crash/ It is this ability to manage department-level policy that is crucial for the president who would be unable to do it alone,

Answer 4

Although cabinet is not a collective body like in the Uk, individually cabinet members are important sources of power for the president largely in terms of the specialist insights they can provide the president. All cabinet appointments are subject to confirmation by a simple majority vote in the Senate - it is highly unusual for the senate to reject the President's nominee. Cabinet-level officials can also undertake work and roles on behalf of the president, as the president alone would be unable to attend every meeting and event required of him. On the election of a new Mexican president in July 2018, secretary of state Mike Pompeo was sent to meet with him to improve relations between the US and Mexico.

Answer 5

The frequency of cabinet meetings used by the president varies from president to president. This was seen during Reagan's first year in office where he held 36 cabinet meetings, while in his first Clinton only held only six. George W Bush held 49 meetings on an average of just 6 meetings a year. Obama held 16 meetings in the first term and 12 in his second. All attendees are assigned places around the cabinet table according to the seniority of the department they head up.

Answer 6

Functions of Cabinet Meetings for the President: - Team Spirit: meetings can engender team spirit and weld together a disparate team to follow the President's agenda. - Collegiality - it is important for president's to appear collegial and consultative - that they are running an open administration. They can be good public relations exercise with media photo opportunities - Exchanging information - they provide opportunities for both information giving and gathering. They are an efficient method by which the President keeps in touch with what is going on in the vast federal bureaucracy - Policy debate - some presidents use the meetings as a forum to debate policy and broaden his consultations - Presenting 'big picture items' - the president can present so-called big picture items that affect all cabinet officers, e.g. the budget - Monitoring congress - some presidents have used the meetings to check up on legislation going through congress - Prompting action - Presidents can use the meetings to galvanize cabinet meetings into action - Personal contact - they provide an opportunity for the president to see cabinet members whom he would not see frequently

Answer 7

Functions of cabinet meetings for cabinet officers: Getting to know each other - meetings provide the opportunity for officers to get to know one another Resolving disputes - they allow interdepartmental disputes can be resolved Speaking to cabinet colleagues - they provide valuable opportunities for dialogue between colleagues Speaking to the P - they provide the opportunity to discuss issues with the President before/after the meeting Increased status for cabinet officers - who would be emboldened to then go on to chair their own department meetings

Answer 8

Although cabinet has no constitutional power, the president does maintain the final say over policy. For example, in 2014, Obama was concerned that Secretary of Defence Chuck Hagel (a republican) was not transferring detainees out of Guantanamo Bay fast enough. Obama's national security adviser, Susan Rice, sent Hagel a memo requiring him to send transfer updates regarding detainees every 2 weeks to try to speed up the process. While Hagel publicly replied 'I owe that to the American people, to ensure that any decision I make is, in my mind, responsible' by November of that year, he had (forced) resigned. This example highlights the president's ability not only to control policy but also to choose to rely on his power within EXOP , in this case Rice, rather than appointed cabinet secretaries.

Answer 9

The cabinet has a symbolic value for presidential power - a symbol of the 'government at war'. Clinton famously remarked he wanted his cabinet to 'look like America'. As a singular executive, the president is likely only to appeal to a certain demographic - that might be due to their age, experienced, ideology, race, sex, religion etc. Clinton's aim for greater diversity made the cabinet more representative of America and therefore reflected a government governing for the whole of America. Bush and Obama (and Biden) continued this trend of diversity in their cabinets, although Trump's cabinet had more males and more white members than any cabinet since Reagan's. Obama's in contrast, remains the most diverse in history with, in 2009, seven women, four African Americans, three Asian Americans, two Hispanics and two Republicans. In terms of age, the average age of the cabinet usually reflects the age of the P - as the oldest person whereas Biden's is more varied in terms of age. And finally, whether it is a democratic and republican administration as the president will want to have the different ideological wings of their party represented: liberal Ds, conservatives Ds and New Ds, Conservative Rs, moderate Rs, and Tea Party Rs. It is also not unusual for a president to pick someone from the other party, as Obama did when in his second term he appointed former R senator Chuck Hagel as his secretary for defence.

Answer 10

FOR arguments: - It contains some of the most important people in the executive branch (e.g. secretary of state, secretary of defence) - All the heads of the 15 executive departments are automatically members - The president always chairs the meetings - Cabinet meetings can fulfil a number of important functions, both for the P and for cabinet officers - Some presidents hold frequent meetings e.g. Reagan, Trump

Answer 11

AGAINIST arguments: - Article 2 of the constitution vests 'all executive power' in the P - there is no doctrine of collective responsiblity - The members are neither the Ps equals nor his political rivals - The president often views members of his cabinet with some suspicion because of their divided loyalties - EXOP is the main source of advice-giving for the president

Answer 12

In 1960, Professor Richard Neustadt suggested that 'the power of the presidency' is the 'power to persuade'. This suggestion was based on the fact that each president has the same constitutional powers and each of these powers is checked directly by congress. The founding fathers wanted it to be difficult for the President to get his way in Congress, they desired cooperation and compromise between these two branches of government, 'ambition must counteract ambition'. The President therefore must rely on something else to achieve his policy goals - persuasion, reputation and public prestige. A president could use these skills to bargain and persuade the rival centres of power within the US political system to do as he wishes. President Truman once commented "I sit here all day within the US political system to do the things they ought to have sense enough to do without my persuading them. That's all the powers of the President amount to"

Answer 13

- president can appeal directly and morally to congress often through the media - the white house can be used a stage or a 'bully pulpit' - the president can also use his own personal gravitas more directly through methods such as phoning congressional leaders or having personal meetings with them - with a short congressional election cycle, the president may offer inducements to members of congress e.g. offering policy promises to make legislation more palatable

Answer 14

A president can appeal directly and morally to congress often through the media. Obama did this in his Rose Garden Speech of 2013 where he maintained that he was convinced of the need to take military action in Syria over it's government use of chemical weapons. He also said that, as leader of the oldest constitutional democracy in the world, it was right that he asked Congress for its approval for such action. For Trump, such appeals were made through Twitter

Answer 15

The White House can be used as a stage or a 'bully pulpit'. This means that it is a place of such importance and gravitas that speaking from it - to congress, the press or the public - can be a way of placing pressure on those with legislative control. An address from the Oval Office can be particularly effective for this, as rather than simply representing the 'main' it represents the office of the P. Obama used this platform to call for gun control after the San Bernardino shooting in 2015. Trump bussed the entire senate to the White House for a briefing on North Korea in 2017 to much the same effect

Answer 16

The president can also use his own personal gravitas more directly, through methods such as phoning congressional leaders or having personal meetings with them. At a less significant level this might be achieved by his White House staff phoning or liaising with members of congress. Obama's deputy chief staff Messina called Senators to ensure that they would still vote to ratify Sonia Sotomayor after a difficult quote came to light during her confirmation hearings. He was also known to phone and have private meetings with Republican speaker John Boehner to try and advance his legislative agenda. In trying to get his tax bill passed, Trump sent aide Kellyanne Conway to speak to whips in Congress

Answer 17

With a short congressional election cycle, a president may be offer inducements to members of congress e.g. offering them policy promises to make legislation more palatable, such as Obama's promises about syrian intervention being limited and involving no deployment of American Soldiers. This might be using the actions of the executive branch to get congressional approval. Obama deported more people than any other P in an effort to gain support for his proposed immigration reforms.

Answer 18

The more popular a president is, the more likely Congress is to listen to him: doing so may win votes and popularity for members. A president with lower poll ratings will often find it difficult to use such powers of persuasion as they have less personal capital to expend. Much of the power of persuasion and the public opinion of a persuasion is also wrapped up in their personal style and charisma. Obama was well spoken and intellectual but averse to schmoozing congressional leaders, while Trump was more brash and aggressive and directly in touch with the people through twitter. Both styles have pros and cons determined by how successful a president is at utilising their own skills

Answer 19

- Vice president - Members of the office of legislative affairs - Cabinet officers - Party leadership in congress Any of the above may report back to the president in order to secure the vote of a particular member of Congress, the president may need to get involved by utilising a range of 'perks' they have at their disposal. David Mervin has stated "the president must bargain, he must make deals, he must negotiate with those with whom he shares power. Bargaining skill is therefore indispensable in a president." The president might offer help with legislation that benefits that members state or district, look more favourably on a judicial or executive branch appointment of interest to the member, invite them to an Oval Office meeting or go to Capitol Hill to meet selected members of Congress.

Answer 20

All of the last 8 VPs - covering more than 40 years, have been former members of Congress and therefore their role is critical. It also helps that as president of the senate, the VP has a foothold in Congress and an office there, where they can meet with members of both Houses. Obama's VP, Biden has served in the senate for 36 years and led the Obama administration in Congress. Having campaigned for many D congressmen/women and senators, many almost owed their political life to him

Answer 21

There are members of the WHO, who work as full-time lobbyists for the president on Capitol Hill, meeting with members of Congress as well as with senior members of staff. The congressional liaison staff are usually organised in such a way that some work on the House side and others on the Senate side, hoping to build good relationships

Answer 22

Cabinet officers can be deployed by the white house to talk with members of Congress in their own policy areas. George W Bush used education secretary Rod Paige to sell his education reform package to congress in 2001 and the following year, secretary of state Colin Powell dispatched to Congress to help persuade members to support authorisation of the use of US troops against Iraq

Answer 23

The president can work through the party leadership in congress - the house speaker' the majority and minority leaders of both houses; the party whips; the committee chairs and minority members. Personality plays a huge part here too - a gregarious president like Reagan or Clinton could easily develop good relationships with members of congress than a more private president such as Obama

Answer 24

In the run up to the passage of the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act (PPACA) 2010 which is also popularly known as Obamacare. Obama made a number of attempts to persuade members of congress to support the legislation. During a two-month period between 27 January and 20 March, the president: - delivered the state of the Union address to Congress - addressed the republican House Issues Conference in Baltimore - took part in a televised session with Senate Democrats in Washington DC - addressed the Democratic National Committee winter meeting in Washington DC - hosted a bipartisan healthcare reform meeting at Blair House, Washington DC - met with 11 House democrats at the White House - met with the New Democrat coalition leadership in the Oval office - met with senator Charles Schumer (D-New York) in the oval office - addressed the House Democratic Caucus on Capitol Hill - addressing town hall meetings across the country

Answer 25

David Mervin described the US president as 'bargainer-in-chief'. The president's success rate is measured each year in what is called the presidential support score. This annual statistic measures how often the president won in recorded votes in the House and Senate on which he took a clear position, expressed as a percentage of the whole. Analysis reveals that this score tends to decline during a presidential term and having one's party control both houses usually results in a high score. However, it doesn't measure the importance of particular votes, e.g. they may win trivial votes and presidents can avoid law scores by simply not taking positions on votes they expect to lose. Furthermore, today the president's job of trying to build support for his legislation from members of the opposition party in Congress has been made more difficult because of increased levels of partisanship

Answer 26

- The president has no formal disciplinary hold over members of congress - Party discipline in Congress, through tighter than it used to be, cannot guarantee votes for the president - The president may be faced with one or both houses of congress controlled by the other party - The president is dependent upon members of Congress for legislation, confirmation of appointments and treaty ratification - The president's 'direct authority' has limited use - The president can offer his support for things members of congress regard as important

Answer 27

- In an era of partisanship, few (if any) members of congress from the opposition party are open to presidential persuasion, especially an big-ticket items - Partisanship also makes persuasion a less useful tool for the president trying to persuade voters to support him and then pressurise recalcitrant members of congress to do likewise - president's nowadays tend to have low approval ratings (and high disapproval ratings) and therefore their persuasion is much less effective - second-term Ps have always found their persuasive power to be very limited

Answer 28

Constitutionally, the office of the VP has only two powers: - to take over the role of the president if necessary - to cast the deciding vote in the event of a tie in the Senate. However, the VP is also the presiding officer of the senate and counts the electoral college votes after the presidents election The VP has come to an represent more than these roles, although their relevance and power varies from president to president. In the presidential election, the 'running mate' is important in 'balancing the ticket' e.g. must be appealing to all votes from all demographic groups.

Answer 29

Al Gore (VP to Clinton) - As one of the President's 'most influential advisors', Gore headed the National Performance Review to reduce the cost of federal government, worked on immigration solutions and championed environmental policies Richard Cheney (VP to George W Bush) - Most famously, he had a huge role in responding to the 9/11 terrorist attacks and the subsequent wars, creating 'a new doctrine in which the president was accountable to no one in his decisions as commander-in chief'. Joe Biden (VP to Obama) - When headlined in the Atlantic as 'The most influential VP in history?' He claimed "I literally get to be the last guy in the room with the President. That's our arrangement". His experience of over 30 years on the Senate Foreign Relations Committee afforded him expertise over the wars in Afghanistan and Iraq, as well as taking the lead on a range of economic issues Mike Pence (VP to Trump) - Made headlines breaking the tie in the senate for the first time in history on a cabinet nomination and cast no less than the six tie-breaking votes in his first year in office. Pence is less reported on than some of his VP predecessors but he holds considerable power within the White House, apparently driving the resignation of Michael Flynn as national security adviser. (Pence lost support of trump following his condemnation of the capital hill riot) Kamala Harris (VP to Biden)

Answer 30

The modern vice presidency is certainly very different from numerous quips referring to the weakness of this role. The power of Biden, for example was a far cry from Thomas Marshall's quote: 'Once there were two brothers. One ran away to sea and the other was elected VP and nothing was ever heard of either of them again'. The power and influence of the role does depend on how much the president delegates to the holder, but this seems increasingly common and the development of the Office of the VP is therefore another tool that the president can use

Answer 31

EXOP are the agencies that work within or directly for the white house and are organised by the President himself. It is an umbrella term for an organisation that consists of top presidential staff agencies that provide advice, coordination and administrative support for the president. It was established in 1939 with just four offices, however by 2017, it was made up of 17 offices - the number has increased because the number of policy areas that the president must address has been increased. Nevertheless, Obama reduced the number of offices to 11 by the end of his first term but still over 2,000 staff The three most important offices within EXOP are the WHO, OMB and the NSC. It is staffed by the people closet and most loyal to the president. It is often referred to as 'The West Wing' although those people in the west wing of the white house are more likely to be key personnel from the WHO, rather than EXOP as a whole.

Answer 32

EXOP are the agencies that work within or directly for the white house and are organised by the President himself. It is an umbrella term for an organisation that consists of top presidential staff agencies that provide advice, coordination and administrative support for the president. It was established in 1939 with just four offices, however by 2017, it was made up of 17 offices - the number has increased because the number of policy areas that the president must address has been increased. Nevertheless, Obama reduced the number of offices to 11 by the end of his first term but still over 2,000 staff The three most important offices within EXOP are the WHO, OMB and the NSC. It is staffed by the people closet and most loyal to the president. It is often referred to as 'The West Wing' although those people in the west wing of the white house are more likely to be key personnel from the WHO, rather than EXOP as a whole.

Answer 33

The EXOP is seen as something of a rival to the cabinet. Those who work in the White House often regard cabinet officers as distant and disloyal (their loyalties being to their own departments and interest groups that have close ties to their departments) and cabinet officers may come to see those who work in the White House as too close and too loyal to the P. e.g Watergate affair. Some of these feelings are born out of natural circumstances as cabinet officers are physically distant from the Oval office and feel like outsides in comparison to those who work in the EXOP and have the key advantage of proximity The first time of Obama's administration in particular, like pretty much all of his predecessors experienced tensions between members of the cabinet and those who worked in the EXOP. His extensive use of White House policy 'czars' signalled that policy making was going to take place at the White House and not in the 15 executive departments scattered around downtown Washington.

Answer 34

The OMB has three principle monetary functions: 1 - to develop the annual budget for the president for submission to congress 2 - to oversee the spending of all federal departments and agencies 3 - to act as a kind of clearing house for all legislative and regulatory initiatives coming from the executive branch so that they can be assessed for their budgetary implications As a president takes office in January, it would be challenging for them to have a budget prepared by the first

Answer 35

The OMB has three principle monetary functions: 1 - to develop the annual budget for the president for submission to congress 2 - to oversee the spending of all federal departments and agencies 3 - to act as a kind of clearing house for all legislative and regulatory initiatives coming from the executive branch so that they can be assessed for their budgetary implications As a president takes office in January, it would be challenging for them to have a budget prepared by the first Monday in February as required by law. The OMB therefore takes the lead in drafting this as well as briefing the president on budget and economic priorities for his first address to congress in mid-february With the OMB is one of the few roles within EXOP that is subject to senate confirmation The OMB's knowledge and expertise strengthens the President's hand in dealings with congress during the annual budget process. The OMB communicates with congress at many levels through numerous channels. At the top, those Directors who are in possession of policy details become the President's most effective representatives and advocate in negotiations with congressional leaders. OMBs leaders have been aided in this by a small legislative affairs staff of political appointees At lower levels, OMB staff have usually been available to their counterparts on the Hill to provide technical explanation and analysis of the P's proposals and other policy ideas

Answer 36

The NSC was established in 1947 and they advise the president and coordinate on matters of national security and foreign policy. It is attended by the VP, the secretaries of state, treasury and defence, as well as the joint chief of staff and the direct of national intelligence and the national security adviser. In the addition to providing advice, it provides a daily security briefing for the president. It coordinates information coming to the White House from the state Department, the Defence Department, the central intelligence agency (CIA), the joint chiefs of staff and American ambassadors around the world. The profile of the NSC often depends on the individual preferences of a president often, it may come into conflict with the department of defence as seen with the rivalry between Susan Rice, Obama's national security adviser and Chuck Hagel The NSC operates out of the situation room, a secure conference room in the white house from which the president can action a response to a crisis

Answer 37

Trump came under criticism for his treatment of the NSC. His first action regarding the NSC was to remove the chairman of the joint chiefs of staff and the director of national intelligence from permanent status - they were relegated and would attend meetings only when summoned - relevant to their experience and expertise. Although, the white house chief of staff Renice Preibus said they could attend at any time. In their place, his appointment of Steve Bannon, a senior adviser and campaign strategist to the NSC, led to accusations of politicisation of this body signalling Trump's intention to use the NSC as a political rather than coordinating forum. This was heavily controversial as the national security council is designed to provide the president advice regarding national security and foreign policy rather than become a political council. However, Bannon was removed after three months and Trump also set the record for having the shortest serving national adviser when Michal Flynn resigned from the past after just 24 days. Trump also courted controversy saying that he do not need daily security briefing: "I'm like a smart person. I don't have to be told the same thing in the same words every single day for the next eight years." He did however, say that VP pence would be receiving the daily briefing.

Answer 38

The white house office is made up of 30 different offices such as the office of legislative affairs and the office of cabinet affairs. It acts as a liaison between the white house and the vast federal bureaucracy and also congress. It is headed by the President's chief of staff and contains the most senior and trusted aids and advisers as the president wishes. The chief of staff is potentially the most powerful person in the White House after the president (almost a deputy P) and is the door-keeper of the oval office deciding whom the president sees, what he reads, who speaks to him on the phone and often takes the blame for the president if things go wrong - protecting from political harm It was chief of staff Andrew Cord who was famously seen whispering in G.W Bush ear on the morning of 11 September 2001, as the president sat in front of an elementary school in Florida. Cord was informing the president of the second plane hitting the world trade centre in New York, 'America is under attack' he told the president.

Answer 39

The press secretary is the most public figure in the WHO as they hold press briefings and often appear on the nightly news egg Sean Spicer become a figure of ridicule within this role with the actor and comedian Melissa McCarthy portraying him on Saturday Night Live. His replacement, Sarah Sanders has also been a target for ridicule and those making fun of the Trump Administration as she found herself on the receiving end of controversial mockery at the annual correspondent dinner.

Answer 40

The P is able to appoint 'senior advisers' without Senate approval and therefore surround himself with people whose advice he 'trusts' the most. Members of the WHO are meant to act as 'honest brokers'. not policy-makers and to have a passion for anonymity. The body can hold extensive power over the president of he likes. Nixon's closest advisors were referred to as the 'Berlin Wall' as they made it difficult for other advisors or indeed advice to get to the president. Supposedly, key documents in the Eisenhower administration first went for approval through his chief of staff Sherman Adams, and bore his approval, 'Ok, S.A' The trump administration has seen a huge turnover of staff within the white house. Trump's second chief of staff claimed 'I've been a failure at the controlling the president or a failure at controlling his tweeting and all that. I was not brought to this job to control anything but the flow of information to our president so that he can make the best decisions".

Answer 41

- electoral mandate - public approval - unified/divided government - first/second term - national circumstances

Answer 42

The success of a president during election time can be a source of power, If he can claim a sweeping victory which increased the strength of his mandate and can make his requests, especially to congress difficult to ignore. Example: Obama gained 52.93% of the popular vote in 2008 which meant had 28 democrat states and gained 365/538 of the electoral college votes over his rival Mc Cain. Part of the president's strength comes from the popularity they demonstrate by convincingly winning an election, some of this is due to the coattails effect. This means that when a political leader does well in an election, it helps other candidates in their party by attracting votes to them too. A popularly elected P is likely to attract more support from congress as a consequence. Conversely, if a president if unpopular, members of congress are likely to distance themselves from the president in the midterm elections thereby lessening his power. Trump was mocked for having a short coattails effect in 2016 as reflected in the subsequent difficult he faced getting his programme through congress.

Answer 43

The present era's hyper-partisanship and the 'marmite presidency', presidents are less likely to be able to sweep the board in an electoral landslide as Johnson did in 1964, Nixon in 1972 and Reagan in 1984. No president has been elected with more than 55% of the vote since Reagan's landslide in 1984. When Trump took office in January 2017, he had to cope with not falling well short of gaining 50% of the popular vote, but even getting just short of 3 million votes fewer than Clinton. For all Trump's bluster about his electoral college landslide, his electoral mandate in numerical terms was very weak

Answer 44

The president's public approval rating will be important and will be affect their ability to get things done - clearly a president with a high approval rating has more political clout. It was probably Clinton's high approval ratings during 1999 that probably saved him from conviction in the Senate during his impeachment trial that year. Democrat senators were reluctant to remove from office the president of their party who was still popular with the electorate In their current era of partisanship, there has been a widening of the gap in the way American's view their president according to party. The presidencies of Clinton, G.W Bush, Obama and Trump have brought us into the era of 'Marmite presidency' - as far as the individual is concerned, you either love him and hate him.

Answer 45

Presidents usually find it easier to gain success during their first term - particularly during the first two years and this is why presidents always try to pull of their top policy priorities early in their first term In their second terms, presidents quickly become lame ducks The average first-year presidential support score for presidents from Reagan to Obama is 83% while the average last year is around 48%

Answer 46

The extent to which a president can push their legislative agenda through congress often depends on whether the government is unified or divided. In times of divided government, the president is likely to find it more difficult to get congress to pass their desired legislation. A president with less success or who loses one or both houses of congress in an election, is likely to find it more difficult to wield his power as the government will be divided. This can be contrasted to a unified government where a president will find it much easier to be successful. For presidents Clinton to Obama, the average presidential support score for years of unified government was 83% while the average score for years of divided government was just 53%

Answer 47

National event can significantly help or hinder presidential powers. In the days after 9/11 attacks, the poll ratings for G.W Bush substantially increased, largely due to the fear that Americans felt and so looked to the P as a figurehead. His approval ratings reached a low of just 25% in 2008 and rarely went above 40%. However, two weeks after the attack it was 90% and stayed above 80% for 6 months and above 70% for a further four months During this time, Bush was able to win passage of key pieces of legislation, not only concerning national security but also education. His father experienced a similar surge of support in 1990 following the successful ousting of Iraq's Saddam Hussein from Kuwait but his support faded a good deal more quickly. However, in contrast in G.W. Bush faced criticism over his handling of the response to Hurricane Katrina, which was too close, decreasing his poll ratings. It is not just crimes a president can often find himself with positive national circumstances that can help bolster his power such as the blossoming economy under Clinton. This is not always guaranteed - Trump had an unusual presidential record in 2018, by having an improving economy but a declining presidential approval rating

Answer 48

Clinton - Oklahoma bombing 1985 (bomb set of in Oklahoma killed 168 people and injured more than 600) - Clinton was able to use the story of Richard Dean, who re-entered the building four times to rescue people to highlight congress failings in allowing two government shutdowns Monica Lewinsky scandal 1998-99 (Clinton was accused of lying under oath about his relationship with Lewinsky_ - Clinton was subjected to impeachment as a result and only narrowly found 'not guilty' embarrassing him on a national stage but his high approval ratings contributed to a reluctance to remove him from office George W Bush - 9/11 Terrorist attacks (Terrorist hijacked airliners, flying them into the Twin Towers and the Pentagon) - Bush approval ratings jumped overnight and allowed him to rally around after his poor election result in the preceding year. Hurricane Katrina 2005 (Hurricane hit New Orleans killing nearly 2,000) - Bush's perceived slow response to this, and support of FEMA made embarrassing national headlines Obama - Sandy Hook Elementary school Shooting 2012 (20 children aged six and seven were killed in a school shooting) - Obama appeared as an mourner-in-chief to the nation and was able to advance a gun control agenda. However, little action came as a result with congress failing to pass gun restrictions or control. 2007-8 Economic crash (The economic recession that began under Bush and continued into Obama presidency) - Regardless of the policies Obama campaigned on, he was always hampered with the need to deal with the economic crisis Trump - Hurricane Maria 2017 (Hurricane hit Puerto Rico, killing around 3,000 people) - A slow response from Trump, and his later description of the response as a 'great success' courted controversy

Answer 49

Electoral mandate - percentage of popular vote won in last election. Difference between Reagan winning 59% (1984) and Trump winning 46% (2016). Bush (2000) and Trump (2016) both lost popular vote, Public approval - The higher the president's approval rating, the more political clout he is likely to have. Difference between G.W. Bush (62% approval average in first year) and Trump (38% approval rating in first year) Term - P likely to have been more successful in first two years of first term than second term as they become 'lame duck presidents' Unified/divided government - likely to be more successful if his party controls both houses of congress (through not Clinton in 1993 or Trump in 2017) Crisis - In a crisis, the nation tends to 'rally round the flag' and look to the P for leadership. Through if the president is seen to mishandle the crisis, it can have the opposite effect

Answer 50

Congress - - amend, delay, reject the P's legislative proposals and budgetary requests. - override the president's veto - refuse to confirm appointments (Senate) - refuse to ratify treaties (Senate) - Investigate, try and remove the president from office Supreme court - declare the presidents actions to be unconstitutional Pressure groups - mobilise public opinion against the president's policy proposals Public opinion - low approval ratings give the president less political clout Voters - in special and midterm elections, as well as in re-election bid Federal Bureaucracy - Federal departments/agencies may frustrate the president's wishes State governments - president is often reliant upon state government to enact his policies

Answer 51

Edward argues that presidents in the context of polarised politics may conclude that they can no longer govern by adopting an inclusive approach to policy making, that there is little potential for persuasion and the only way to govern is on the basis of a '50% plus 1 majority'. This is what we have seen with both bush and Obama rather than seeking compromise with their opponents by bringing them into an inclusive coalition and supporting legislation broadly acceptable to the electorate they sought, as Edwards puts it 'to defeat the opposition, creating winners and losers in a zero-sum game'. If so, then presidential elections will be no more than an effort to mobilise one's own party base rather than convince undecided and swing voters of the merits of one's visions for the country as witnessed in 2016

Answer 52

The US constitution divides the powers of the federal government between three branches with a system of checks and balances operating between them. This often brings tension and conflict between presidency and the other two branches, which at time resembles a struggle for supremacy. This is exacerbated when congress is controlled by one party and the presidency by another as it can lead congress being openly obstructive. But even when the same party controls both the presidency and congress, as from 2017 to 2019, that is no guarantee of consistently good relations between the two branches

Answer 53

Why is the president trying to get congress to do? - pass his legislative proposals - sustain his vetoes - confirm his executive and judicial nominations (senate only) - ratify his treaties (senate only) Why does a president need to persuade congress to support him? - the powers he has are checked by congress - his party may control only one house of congress or neither - members of congress have other loyalties than to the P, especially to their constituents and to powerful lobbyists - members of congress are elected separately from the P - the P has few 'sticks and carrots' (disincentives and incentives) to encourage members of congress to support him

Answer 54

propose legislation veto legislation nominate executive branch officials nominate federal judges negotiate treaties commander-in-chief of the armed forces act as chief executive

Answer 55

amend, delay, reject the P's legislative proposals override the veto senate has the power to confirm or reject senate has the power to ratify or reject declare war/power of the purse investigation, impeachment, trial, removal from office

Answer 56

The president's relationship with congress is based on more factors compared to just the electoral mandate and the time of the electoral cycle. The manner in which exercises his constitutional powers is also important. The separation of powers in federal government should ensure compromise - where a president is unwilling to compromise. Congress often becomes entrenched too. This was evident in September 2018, Politico ran the headline 'Congress dares trump to shut down the government in new spending deal' which shows the antagonistic relationship between the two branches as a result of the looming midterm election but also the divisive nature of trump's political ideology and polarised politics in America. His veto threats, attacks on congressional failure to repeal Obamacare and pressure to confirm Brett Kavanaugh (had SA allegations with victims coming forward to the media) as his supreme court appointment have all frustrated Congress and led to it pushing back against presidential power

Answer 57

Effective - Short election cycle of congress and the coattails effect means that it is highly responsive to presidential popularity. It is significantly more willing to use its powers when the president is unpopular - In domestic policy, congress has a significant powers to control presidential power, from passing legislation to deciding on the funding that he will be allocated - the constitution gives congress a range of checks to prevent presidential action or ultimately remove the president if necessary - In times of divided government, congress has demonstrates its willingness and ability to use powers such as the veto override, overriding presidential action - National crisis can also dent the popularity of the president depending on his reaction, which directly affects congress's willingness to apply checks to his powers

Answer 58

Ineffective - - The president's enumerated powers give him far greater power as he is able to exercise powers alone while congressional powers often require supermajorities and bi-partisanship which are difficult to achieve - In foreign policy, there are significantly fewer powers that congress has to hold the president accountable and those that it does have are significantly weaker than its domestic policy. - The constitutional powers of congress are largely reactive being able to confirm or deny the president's choices and in some cases being circumvented - In times of united government, congress is less likely to use its power to try and limit the P allowing him considerable power - In times of national crisis requiring a swift response, congress often acts with deference to the President who as a singular executive can act quickly. This often gives the president large grants of power

Answer 59

Frustrated by the checks imposed upon them as well as a partisan gridlock in Washington, presidents have made increasingly use of what is called direct authority - actions they can take which do not require congressional approval and yet can achieve some of their policy goals. There are four types of direct authority: - Executive orders - Signing statements - Recess appointments - Executive agreements

Answer 60

Executive Orders are official documents issued by the executive branch with the effect of law, through the P direct federal officials to take certain actions. They have the effect of law, but are an example of 'extra-constitutional power' - a power outside of the constitution. They do not require congressional approval. An executive order is often drafted in the departments and agencies of the federal government and sometimes in the OMB. Therefore, they are easy for the P to issue, but equally easy for subsequent P to rescind. In 1984. Reagan signed an executive order that prohibited family planning clinic that received federal funds from informing their clients about abortion options. However, within days of taking office in 1993, Clinton revoked the order. Then on the second day in office in 2001, G.W. Bush reinstated the Reagan order. In 2009, it was revoked again by Obama. Obama made increasingly use of executive orders after the democrats lose control of Congress. One policy area in which the Obama administration used executive orders to advance its goals was gay rights. People with HIV were no longer barred from entering the country; federal housing rules were changed to prevent discrimination according to sexual orientation, health issuance companies were prevented from discriminating against gay people, married same-sex couples could take family and medical leave; and the Internal Revenue Service treated same-sex couples no differently from other married couples. However, although these orders circumvent the checks made by congress, they may still be declared unconstitutional by the courts. In November 2014, Obama issued an executive order: the Deferred Action for Parents of Americans and Lawful Permanent Residents (DAPA) to allow certain illegal immigrants to be granted 'deferred action status' - they would be just subject to an indefinite delay in their deportation. Texas, along with 25 other states with republican governors challenged the P's action in federal court calling it 'one of the largest changes in immigration policy in out nations history' and claiming that the president could not carry out such as a programme without congress's approval. The federal courts found that Obama did not have such powers and that his action was unconstitutional as it breached the clause of Article 2 of the constitutional requires the president to 'take care that the laws be faithfully executed'. The justice department asked the supreme court to review his decision. Its 4-4 tied decision left in place the federal aspects court decision blocking the plan Facing an uncooperative congress, Trump made significant use of them during his first few months - in his first week he signed 12. On learning at business meeting on his first working day, that the nation's pipelines were not made US steel he signed an order the following day requiring them to be made solely with American materials - without realising that this contravened World Trade Organisation. However, an executive order was issued at the end of his first week which caused the most controversy which was placing a four-month ban on refugees and a three-month travel ban on citizens from seven predominately Muslim Countries e.g Iran, Iraq, Libya, Somalia, Sudan, Syria, and Yemen- however, the federal courts placed a temporary restraining order on the Presidents order.

Answer 61

Presidents have also expanded their use of direct authority through the use of signing statements. This is a statement issued by the president on a signing a bill which may challenge specific provisions of the bill on constitutional or other grounds. G.W Bush increasingly used signing statements to challenge the constitutionality of some part of a bill he was signing. There is a debate as to whether these statements are legitimate - it is proper for a president to sign a bill into law but at the same time to state that they will not enforce part of it because they believe it violates the constitutional of federal law. Critics argue they should either veto the bill or await a ruling on the law's constitutionality from the supreme court - that they are an abuse of presidential power over legislation. Supporters see them as a way of the president getting his way over legislation, even when congress is uncooperative. Obama criticised Bush for using them to 'accumulate more power to the presidency' and to 'make laws as he's going along'. But Obama had been in the Oval office for less than two months when he circulated a memorandum to the heads of the executive departments commending the practice. Naturally, members of congress are upset by the practice as to them, a signing statement often blocks the enforcement of a law that congress has a duly passed and they regard them as the equivalent of an unconstitutional line-item veto. However, they have also been interpreted as a good example of part of the 'invitation to struggle' that the constitution created between the president and congress

Answer 62

Under the appointments clause of the constitution, the president is empowered to make a recess appointment of a federal official to fill a vacancy while the senate is in recess and unable to confirm the appointment. Therefore, it is a way of the president getting his way on appointments against an uncooperative and intransigent congress. Clinton and George W Bush increasingly used them. Obama lost a unanimous supreme court decision about them in 2014, which resulted in him making no further recess appointments during the last four years of his presidency

Answer 63

As another type of direct authority, it is an agreement reached between the president and a foreign nation on matters that do not require a formal treaty. They cover such matters as basing US troops on foreign soil and resolving claims made by citizens of one county against the government of another. They could be concerned with regulating international trade or anti-terrorism policies. Commentators argue that the president's executive agreements to circumvent the senate's power to ratify treaties - they are therefore useful for the president when the senate is controlled by another party as a result there is strong opposition towards the president from congress

Answer 64

The president's relationship with the SC is perhaps less changeable than his relationship with congress. His ability to pressure the court is limited and while his nominations can considerably change the balance of the court, vacancies do not occur at his will. However, the relationship with the SC is something that a president may well reflect upon publicly Obama openly criticised the supreme court in his 2010 State of the Union address, arguing its ruling in Citizens United v Federal Elections Commission had 'opened the floodgates to huge volumes of money being spent in elections. Justice Samuel Alito sat in the audience shaking his head and mouthing 'not true, not true'. Obama suffered further defeats at the hands of the SC in having his DAPA executive and his recess appointments deemed unconstitutional. Equally, however, the court upheld Obamacare and made same-sex marriages effectively legal across the whole of the US during his time in office. These successes can't be attributed to the president but they do affect the relationship these two branches have in the media Justice Kennedy, known as the 'swing' justice on the supreme court, announced his retirement in 2018. This gave Trump the unusual opportunity to move the ideology of the court, by replacing Kennedy with a justice who holds a more right-wing ideology.

Answer 65

The president is also subject to checks from interest groups which will mobilise public opinion for or against him or his policies. Obama experienced this when the National Rifle Association mobilised public opinion to oppose his gun control proposals, following a number of mass shootings. The media also plays a significant role in checking the President - President's live in a media saturated 24/7 news cycle and as a result, what the media report and say can profoundly influence what presidents can do. The federal bureaucracy is another president check. The president is the only one person in an executive branch made up of 15 executive departments and some 60 federal agencies, broads and commissions employing around 3 million civil servants. As many federal government programmes are implemented by the states, state governments and particularly state governors are another potential check as highlighted in the opposition (from republicans) Obama experienced in the states implementation of his healthcare reforms.

Answer 66

President Clinton and the 1996 budget: The Republican-controlled Congress refused, despite months of negotiation, to approve the budget proposed by Clinton. This led to a shutdown of many federal government services for a total of 27 days between November 1995 and January 1996, and is an extreme example of poor relations between a Democrat president and a Republican Congress. The dispute was eventually resolved, but opinion poll evidence suggested that most Americans blamed the Republican leader Newt Gingrich for the disruption and that this contributed to Clinton’s emphatic win in the 1996 presidential election.

Answer 67

President George W. Bush’s use of signing statements: Signing statements are declarations issued by the president when signing legislation to comment on its implementation. If a president signs a bill and then instructs the government to disregard selected provisions, he can wield a de facto line-item veto, which Congress cannot overturn. President George W. Bush used signing statements against approximately 1200 sections of bills – almost twice as many as all the previous presidents put together. The extensive use of signing statements was a key weapon in the Bush administration’s efforts to increase the power of the executive branch, influenced by Vice President Cheney.

Answer 68

President Obama’s response to Citizens United v FEC in January 2010: In its decision on this case, the US Supreme Court struck down key sections of the McCain-Feingold Act of 2002, limiting corporate funding of political broadcasts. In his State of the Union address a few days after the verdict, President Obama publicly criticised this ruling with several Supreme Court justices present, including Chief Justice Roberts. The Court, he said, had ‘given a green light to a new stampede of special interest money in our politics’. This unprecedented high-profile presidential rebuke of Supreme Court justices marked a new low in relations between the presidency and the Court.

Answer 69

President-elect Trump and the Office of Congressional Ethics, January 2017: On 2 January 2017, the opening day of the 2017–19 Congress, Republican congressmen voted to severely weaken the powers of the independent ethical watchdog, the OCA, and put it under the jurisdiction of the House Ethics Committee, ending its independence. This provoked a furious backlash from congressional Democrats, angry emails from constituents and two critical tweets from President-elect Donald Trump, who saw it as an unwelcome distraction from his pledge to ‘drain the swamp’ of Washington corruption. The decision was reversed the following day, but the episode was widely seen as an early indication of possible tensions between Trump and Republicans in Congress, as well as being a public relations disaster for the party.

Answer 70

- once a year, the president delivers a state of the union address to congress, through this is a set-piece speech outlining his priorities for the year, not an opportunity for grilling by congress - senate and house committees can schedule public hearings to investigate perceived failures by the executive branch - either house can establish a secret committee specifically to investigate an issue - in the most serious cases, such as the Watergate scandal which led to Nixon's resignation in 1974, the house of representatives and senate can establish a joint committee - congress can impeach the president, through this has only been attempted twice on both occasions unsuccessfully

Answer 71

The founding father never intending the presidency itself to be a powerful office as it is usually regarded as remarkable that presidents can accomplish anything at all of significance in relation to domestic policy as a result of the checks placed in the constitution. Today's era of partisanship, where members of opposition will rarely vote with the president, especially on controversial big-ticket issues which leads to questioning on the usefulness of the president's persuasive skills as there are few people are persuadable. But the presidency has evolved significantly since the time of George Washington and presidential scholars have used various terms to signal this evolution.

Answer 72

The 'modern presidency' and the 'institutionalised presidency' both had their birth in the administration of franklin Roosevelt, (the first and only president to serve more than two terms between 1933-45, in a time before the two-term limit was introduced in 1951). During his presidency the role of the federal government expanded significantly. EXOP was established and the US took on its full-time world leadership role. The pendulum swung in the direction of a presidential power and away from congressional authority. Congress seemed to become more subservient to the president. This trend extending executive powers continued with Roosevelt's democrat successors Truman, Kennedy and Johnson - as well as Republican Nixon who succeeded them

Answer 73

Critics of this presidential assertiveness soon materialised. In 1973, Arthur Schlesinger Jr wrote a book entitled The Imperial Presidency in which he discussed the growing power and the misuse of presidential power and the lack of effective checks by Congress on this power - particularly under Lyndon Johnson and Richard Nixon. According to David Mervin, the word 'imperial' summons up images of the president as an emperor, supreme authority, a master of all he surveys. According to Schlesinger's thesis, 'the imperial presidency was essentially the creation of foreign policy;'. He traced its origins to the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbour in December 1941 - a crisis that allowed Roosevelt to break free from congress conventional ties on the executive. The imperial presidency may have been a creation of foreign policy, but it soon spread to the conduct of domestic policy. Nixon's policies to clamp down on anti-Vietnam war protests smacked to some of excessive use of power. The way in which he organised and conducted business in the White House, looked to some more like an emperor's court than a presidential office.

Answer 74

However, the power of the executive has fluctuated since then - it took a bit of a hit as a result of president's Nixon's resignation over the Watergate scandal in 1974. Some argue that Nixon's forced resignation by congress was evidence that the imperial presidency did not exist. His successor Gerald Ford, coined the term 'the imperilled presidency' in an article in 1980, discussing how post-Watergate presidents have found that their hands have been much more tied. Ford complained of congressional meddling in presidential powers: 'some people used to complain about what they called an 'imperial presidency'. But now the pendulum has swung too far in the opposite direction. We have not an imperial presidency but an imperilled presidency and it is harmful to our overall national interests'. Schlesinger himself recanted his thesis in 1986. Therefore, a president who finds it difficult to exercise his constitutional powers and appears to be weak is often known as 'imperilled'. An imperilled president can also be referred to as a lame duck although this has a both a formal and informal meaning: - Formally, a lame duck P is one who is not continuing in office in January but who still holds office. He may have lost his election for second-term such as George H.W Bush or have served two terms such as Obama. In either case, between the election in November and the inauguration in January, the P is known as a lame duck as he holds the office and constitutional powers but not the electoral mandate - Informally, a 'lame duck; president has come to mean one who is weak and cannot exercise his powers effectively at any point in his presidency.

Answer 75

the 'imperilled presidency' thesis had to be rewritten as a result of a Reagan's post-imperial eight years in the white house. In contrast, to the 'failed' one-term Ps Ford and Carter Reagan launched an ambitious legislative programme at home and restored America's damaged self-confidence abroad and was re-elected by a landslide in 1984. Presidential power was back and as a result, some commentators have revived the term imperial presidency in discussing the power of the executive branch in the 21st century. However, today a president is often referred to as an imperial when attempts by congress to exercise its constitutional checks for example, through executive orders or agreements which would could be termed an imperial presidency. Nevertheless, the reality that it is unlikely that any president could be referred to as 'imperial' or 'imperilled' for the entirety of his presidency. The factors already explored help to explain how the powers of the president fluctuate over the course of his term in office and popular presidents tend to be more powerful, while less popular Ps find it more difficult to exercise powers. These factors include: electoral mandate, public approval, first/second term, unified/divided government, crisis and congress When Obama took office in 2009, he enjoyed Democrat majorities in both house of congresses and used his power and persuasive skills to refashion the nation's national security policy, pass a massive economic stimulus through congress, enact a federal 'bailout' for the banking and car manufacturing industries, reform the regulation of Wall street and dramatically expand the role of the federal government in the provision of healthcare. But once the House (2010) and then the senate (2014) fell to republican control, the president found himself severely limited in what he could achieve and resorted to the use of executive orders, recess appointments and the prior congressional approval - sparking off a renewed debate over the limits of presidential power and accusations of a renewal of imperial presidency.

Answer 76

IMPERIAL PRESIDENCY - - Clintons attitude to foreign policy was reminiscent of Richard Nixon's despite his anti-war background - 1994 - he stood ready to launch his 20,000 troops invasion of Haiti without congressional approval - March-June 1999 Serbian war, USA committed the most American Personnel for the war since the gulf war but the Clinton refused to go to congress for a declaration of war - Healy accuses Clinton for sanctioning the missile strikes on Sudan and Afghanistan as a distinction from the Lewinsky affair - Clinton's use of US troops in NATO peacekeeping missions in the federal republic of Yugoslavia in the 1990s was viewed as a violation of the war powers act 1973 IMPERILLED PRESIDENCY - - the proposed invasion of Haiti never happened as the former president Jimmy Carter successfully mediated the crisis - Patrick Maney argued carter modified Clinton's explicit information/instruction to achieve his objectives, gaining all the credit in the process - shows imperilled presidency - If Clinton was an imperial president he would have been successful in passing his flagship domestic policy of healthcare reforms - Clinton was unable to convince democrat controlled congress to vote on his proposals.

Answer 77

IMPERIAL PRESIDENCY - - Bush power's accelerated after 9/11, leading to some arguing there is a new presidency - announcing 'war on terror' - Bush used executive orders to authorise controversial anti-terrorist measures including surveillance of suspects without a court order - He also detained alleged terrorist without trial at Guantanamo Bay detention centre was an example of an imperial president as he pushed the presidential powers outlined in the constitution - Bush increased his approval after 9/11 which allowed him to pass legislation such as the Patriot Act (2001), the economic growth and tax reconciliation act (2001), the homeland security act and the no child left behind act (2002) - Republican controlled congress reduced their scrutiny of the president IMPERILLED PRESIDENCY - - bush did not act unilaterally as he sought/received the permission of congress beforehand - creation of Guantanamo Bay was reined in by the SC for his policy of holding enemy combatants without rights to appear before a civilian judge - republican congress was not beholden to his wishes taking no action on his plans for social security reform in 2006 - bush was more of a lame duck president in his last 2 years of power as the public were losing enthusiasm for the 'war on terror' and his administration were criticised for their handling of Hurricane Katrina - bush found it difficult to get his proposed legislation enacted as a result of scrutiny of democrat controlled congress

Answer 78

IMPERIAL PRESIDENCY - - obama enjoyed democratic majorities in both house of congress and he used his power and persuasive skills to refashion foreign policy - Obama signed a 4-year extension to Bush's patriot act and would launch ten times as many airstrikes in the Middle East and Asia. - He sanctioned a military intervention in Libya without seeking congressional approval - He also sanctioned the death of Answar-Al-Awlaki an alleged terrorist through a drone attack in yemen (2011) despite ignoring his right to trial - foreign policy wise - imperial president - In relation to domestic policy, Obama passed a significant stimulus packages such as the American recovery and reinvestment act to bail out the US economy, passed wall street reform, consumer protection act to reform wall street and the PPACA (Obamacare) IMPERILLED PRESIDENCY - - HOR in 2011 and senate in 2015 changed to republican control which limited obama on what he could achieve - Obama was never able to close Guantanamo bay detention centre despite it being an election pledge twice - the introduction of obamacare was dependent on him compromising conservative democrat for support - obama used an executive agreement for his joint comprehensive plan of action with Iran in 2015 as the senate would not ratify the treaty - Senate refused to even discuss his SC nominate Merrick Garland in 2016 - Obama used executive orders to try and circumvent congress as the SC argued his immigration programme was unconstitutional

Answer 79

IMPERIAL PRESIDENCY - - trump behaved in an imperial fashion by pulling the US out of a number of foreign agreements e.g the iran nuclear deal, the north american free trade agreement - trump launched shayrat missile strike against the syrian government in 2017. - Trump also ordered the airstrike assassination of Iranian general, Qasem solemani - trump acted unilaterally with interactions with North korea and Kim Jong Un - used twitter to inform congress of future airstrikes IMPERILLED PRESIDENCY - - domestic policy makes him an imperilled president - muller investigation on trumps links win Russia- Trump's reputation was damaged as they were secret meetings - Trumps first impeachment - HOR claimed trump attempted to coerce Ukraine Government - Trump second impeachment - capital riots - Trump failed to persuade united republican congress to replace and repeal obamacare - 35 day federal government shutdown in 2018-19 caused by democrats refusing to allocate funds across the border of mexico - Trumps dismissal of the covid 19 pandemic led to state governors utilising some state powers to the react to the pandemic. Trump was criticised for high pandemic numbers - Trump was challenged for his handling of george floyd and the black lives matter protest through exacerbating problems e.g. calling the national guard rather than bring calm which was heavily criticised by the government - Trump failed to dominate both houses of congress despite both being republican as divided government

Answer 80

Principal responsibility for foreign policy lies with the president. The constitution granted the president two specific powers relating to foreign policy: to act as commander-in-chief of the armed forced and to negotiate treaties. As head of state, and given the constitutional powers a P has, there are a number of ways in which he was seemingly more power and fewer checks in foreign policy than in his domestic roles. However, the constitution also gives control of some significant checks and balances concerning foreign policy to congress

Answer 81

The commander-in-chief power is checked by congress's power to declare war and to control the purse strings. However, the effectiveness of these checks is open to question. Furthermore, the president's power in foreign policy is subject to the fluctuations in presidential power over the course of presidency. G.W. Bush had huge amounts of power to involve the US in wars in the Middle East in 2001 and 2003. However, the declining popularity of these wars and of Bush himself meant that Congress was increasingly willing to try and exercise control over this area by the end of Bush's term in office

Answer 82

- the creation of treaties, although these are senate confirmable. He could circumvent this by using executive agreements - the appointment of US officials to control foreign policy. Many cabinet officials such as the secretary of state. defence, homeland security have notable power in controlling foreign policy, along with the director of the CIA, chairman of the joint chiefs of staff and national security advisor. There are also ambassadors whom the president appoints - both to nation states and those to international organisations such as the UN, the EU and NATO. All of these appointments with the exception of the national security adviser, are subject to senate confirmation - The role of commander-in-chief has seemingly usurped congress power to declare war. While congress has tried to remedy this using the power of the purse and Authorisations for Use of Military Force (AUMF), ultimately it has struggled to use this to prevent action. The War Powers Resolution has been viewed as unconstitutional by P's since 1973 and therefore not successfully enforced. - As the head of the state, the president often finds congress acting with defence in times of emergencies. Similar to Ford's quote regarding '535 commanders-in-chief', Congress allows considerable presidential freedom of action in response to a crisis, such a 9/11. By the time it tries to reclaim its power the damage is often done - President has the ability to set the tone of foreign policy through set pieces speeches e.g. inaugural speeches or the state of the union address. For example, Bush set the tone of foreign policy after the 9/11 attacks in his 2002 state of the union address through stating certain countries as 'axis of evils' and introduction of the bush doctrine. Obama set a different tone for foreign policy in 2009 through focusing on diplomacy and reliance on soft power

Answer 83

- using its powers over appropriations to fund or defund military action. In 2007, democrats attempted to defund the Iraq War. - the issuing of AUMF such as for the Iraq War, to secure its role in authorising military action even if its not formally declaring war. - It ratifies treaties and presidential appointments. When a president attempts to circumvent these powers, congress protests and works to make headlines. The senate did this with Obama's Iran Nuclear Deal, which congress not only demanded a say on, but also attempted to time-limit his negotiations - congress can use it legislative power to try and control foreign policy. Congress passed laws preventing Obama allowing Syrian refugees and the release of Guantanamo Bay detainees on to US soil, thwarting his plans. congress has power of the purse and can defund proposals Congress also has powers relating to foreign policy such as to declare war, to agree to budgets and to investigate. Senate also has the power to confirm appointments and to ratify treaties.

Answer 84

Issues within the USA that directly concern citizens, e.g. healthcare, gun control, racial issues.

Answer 85

An electoral mandate is the permission granted to a political leader or winning party to govern and act on their behalf, e.g. to President Obama in 2008 and 2012. The mandate is more or less in effect for as long as the government is in power.

Answer 86

The executive branch, headed by the president, is one of the three branches of government; the other two are the legislative branch (headed by Congress) and the judiciary (headed by the Supreme Court).

Answer 87

Official documents issued by the executive branch with the force of law, through which the president directs federal officials to take certain actions. Since the 1900s executive orders have been numbered and recorded in the Federal Register.

Answer 88

A dominant presidency with ineffective checks and balances from the other branches.

Answer 89

This is the contrasting theory to that of an imperial presidency – it is claimed that the president does not have enough power to be effective.

Answer 90

Powers of the president not listed in the Constitution but taken anyway

Answer 91

This is an informal power of the president in which they can use the prestige of their job, and other bargaining methods in order to get people to do as they wish.

Answer 92

Where both Houses of Congress and the presidency are controlled by people from the same political party.

Answer 93

President has the power to set the tone of foreign policy as he performs this role through set piece speeches such as the inaugural address or the state of the union address. An example would be George W bush who set the tone of foreign policy when talking about an axis of evil in his 2002 state of the union address. The events that the US had just lived through and the perceived threats that it faced allowed Bush to formulate and announce a new foreign policy doctrine: The Bush Doctrine. This strategy would have implications for America's relations with every country and international organisation. It was based on two fundamental claims: the virtues of American primacy and the nation's right to wage pre-emptive war against perceived threats. The latter reflected the administrations belief that terrorist organisations have changed world politics to such an extent that conventional instruments of coercive foreign policy no longer applied. The conclusion was that the only thing that would work would be America taking the offence than play the defensive.

Answer 94

Obama's power to set the tone of foreign policy heavily differed to George W Bush's approach. This is because Obama's inaugural speech in 2009 set a very different tone focusing on restraint. He announced that America would return to a reliance on 'soft power' and that his administration would revive diplomacy as a core instrument of foreign policy. However, whether his administration's foreign policy lived up to these expectations is debatable. The promised closure of Guantanamo Bay detention camp never materialised. Furthermore, the largest offensive by coalition forces in Afghanistan was launched in 2010 and 2011 he signed a four-year extension of the USA Patriot Act (Uniting and Strengthening America by providing Appropriate Tools Required

Answer 95

Obama's power to set the tone of foreign policy heavily differed to George W Bush's approach. This is because Obama's inaugural speech in 2009 set a very different tone focusing on restraint. He announced that America would return to a reliance on 'soft power' and that his administration would revive diplomacy as a core instrument of foreign policy. However, whether his administration's foreign policy lived up to these expectations is debatable. The promised closure of Guantanamo Bay detention camp never materialised. Furthermore, the largest offensive by coalition forces in Afghanistan was launched in 2010 and 2011 he signed a four-year extension of the USA Patriot Act (Uniting and Strengthening America by providing Appropriate Tools Required to Intercept and Obstruct Terrorism), introduced by G.W Bush on October 26th the use of Drone attacks. However, 2011 saw the last US troops withdraw from Iraq and a date of December 2016 was set for the eventual withdrawal of Afghanistan (30th August 2021)

Answer 96

Congress has powers relating to foreign policy too such as to declare war, to agree to budgets and to investigate as well as the Senate's powers to confirm appointments and to ratify treaties. Nevertheless, fearing that its power has been usurped by an increasingly imperial presidency, Congress passed a series of laws in 1970s to try and reassert its foreign policy authority. Most notably, the War Powers Act, passed over Nixon's veto in 1973 (set out procedures for both the P and Congress to follow in situations where the introduction of US forces abroad could lead to their involvement in armed conflict), however, this has proved to be largely ineffective and congress has seen itself being relegated merely to authorising the use of troops abroad. Gene Healy (2008) commented 'When it comes to matters of war and peace, Congress now may be important for the administration to show pro forma respect and deference to it - but there can no longer be any doubt where the real authority resides'. This was evidenced in January 2007 when the Democrats reclaimed control of both houses of Congress - they made little headway in enhancing their influence in foreign policy to end involvement in the war in Iraq - against the wishes of the Republican Bush administration who vetoed their bill.

Answer 97

As part of the system of checks and balances, the constitution divides responsibility for foreign policy between the P and Congress, with specific duties being assigned to each of the branches and two specific checks on presidential actions being given to the senate. President - creation of treaties commander in chief appoint US officials and ambassadors Congress - power of the purse - budget/funds ratify/confirm treaties and appointments declare war - congress

Answer 98

THE PRESIDENCY - - Obama addressed congress from the Rose Garden, laying out his belief in the necessity of a US response and expressing his power as commander-in-chief - Obama's defence secretary, Chuck Hagel approved plans for the use of TomaHawk missiles against Syria. They simply need the order to fire from ships that were positioned near Syria. - At the G20 summit in Russia, Obama tried to get other world leaders to support his proposed action in Syria, using his power as a global leader and representative of the US - The information that was supplied to Congress regarding the situation in Syria was largely provided by the executive branch, even sending members to congress to give evidence all of which supported the P's belief in the need for action. - Obama chose not to call congress back into session following his Rose Garden speech and once negotiations with Syria had begun, he called on congress to postpone its vote - After a diplomatic outcome, he stressed publicly his willingness to act militarily if necessary

Answer 99

CONGRESS - in the rose garden speech, he stated he would allow a congressional vote to ensure full accountability for action - While Speaker Boehner expressed support for the military plans, he made it clear that it was Obama's responsibility to secure the votes to congress - The limited action promised by Obama and the promise to not deploy soldiers reflects the long shadow cast by the Iraq War. Public opinion against this war and the short election cycle in Congress restricted the options available to him. - The senate Foreign Relations Committee held hearings on military intervention in Syria. Giving hearings on military intervention in Syria. Giving evidence, Secretary of State John Kerry again ruled that 'boots on the ground', meaning the deployment of soldiers. The committee eventually approved intervention in Syria by 10 votes to 7. - Members of Congress were given classified briefings in preparation for a congressional vote. - Support for military action among congress was low, potentially explaining Obama's call to postpone the vote and avoid an embarrassing defeat

Answer 100

After the threat of military action, the Syrian government responded aggressively. However, the intervention of Russia led to the Syrian government handing over its chemical weapons to Russia, while stating this was not due to US threats of military action. Following this, Syria began the process of joining the UN chemical Weapons Convention and the destruction of its chemical weapon

Answer 101

Successes - - Biden signed into law the $1.9 trillion American Rescue Plan and Coronavirus relief plan. - Administration reached goal of 200 million vaccinations shots within Biden's first 100 days. - Achieved some normality in federal government through having press conferences and having the most demographically diverse cabinet e.g. Kamala Harris as first black female vice president - Congress approved a $1.75 trillion spending bill central to Biden's Build Back Better agenda which focused on repairing infrastructure and American families plan - Employed presidential unilateralism e.g. executive orders and actions - In relation to tackling the pandemic, early vaccination programmes were sufficient in allowing for the opening of the economy in summer 2021. - American economy rebounded robustly in relation to growth and jobs. Biden Largely built upon the Abraham Accords between Israel, the UAE and Bahrain and moved away from the middle eat to Asia - Biden presidency has also been widely recognised as a return to respect for the constitution and traditional institutions and norms compared to Trump Failures - - Biden's Build Back Better agenda was reduced heavily from the $3.5 trillion measure but was still a remarkable achievement. - Biden's approval ratings spiralled downwards during the few months of his presidency to a weaker one in autumn in 2021 as a result of republican disproval and the polarised nature of US politics - Biden's 43% Job approval ratings in September of his first year were lower than most presidents at that same stage - Biden's presidential approval was damaged because of the on-going pandemic, the knock-on effects on an unstable economy rising inflation and US-Mexico border disputes - Biden's tackling on the Pandemic was mixed as the effort to return America back to normal was hampered by resistance from republican governed states which had high rates of COVID and from certain demographic groups that opposed vaccination efforts meant that the virus was widespread through the country - health crisis had an effect on the economic recovery of the country as worrying trends continued because of the Trump administrations actions which led to an increase of the national debt to $2.8 trillion - America's debt and the national credit score rose further with republican's refusing to raise the debt ceiling. - Withdrawal agreement in Afghanistan and Taliban takeover damaged Washington's credibility with several allies of questioning the reliability to US intelligence - Biden was unable to re-join the Iran-nuclear deal that Trump had left - Democracy more fragile as a result of polarised politics and republicans contesting future elections results e.g. January 6th - Roe v Wade overturning and the supreme court having largely a (6-3) conservative a majority