US History Midterm 2024 Flashcards
Identify the major challenges facing the US after the Civil War.
- Determining how to protect the rights of freed slaves.
- Rebuilding the economy after wartime damages.
- Establishing a process to readmit seceded Southern states.
Describe how the Radical Republicans’ approach to Reconstruction differed from President Andrew Johnson’s.
- Radicals were much more determined to destroy the South.
- Radicals were committed to protect the rights of freed slaves.
- Johnson did not feel that these ideas were beneficial and vetoed multiple policies to protect freedmen.
Identify the positive changes that impacted Black Americans during Reconstruction.
- Passage of the 13th (ended slavery), 14th (citizenship rights), and 15th (Black male voting) Amendments.
- Formation of the Freedmen’s Bureau.
- Election of Black poltiicians; like Senator Hiram Revels.
Identify the negative changes that impacted Black Americans during Reconstruction.
- Creation of white supremacy groups, like the KKK.
- Creation of the sharecropping system.
- Developments of voting restrictions: like poll taxes and literacy tests.
Explain the purpose of Black Codes created after the Civil War.
- To limit the rights of newly freed slaves.
- Examples: Limits on employment, housing, voting, and more.
Explain each of the following conflicts during Reconstruction:
- Radical Republicans vs. President Lincoln
- Radical Republicans vs. President Johnson
- President Grant vs. the South
- Radicals believed tha Lincoln’s 10% plan was too lenient to the South.
- Johnson wanted to pardon many Southern leaders, angering Radicals.
- President Grant favored policies that banned white supremacist groups like the KKK
Explain how the Election of 1876 led to the end of Reconstruction.
- Because there was no majority winner in the Electoral College, a commission was formed in the House of Reps to choose a winner.
- This group agreed to a compromise that made the Republican Hayes President— BUT he had to remove federal troops from the South, ending Reconstruction.
Identify the factors that led to increased innovation after the Civil War.
- Availability of natural resources in the US.
- Excitement to promote positive ideas/products after the war.
- Creativity that stemmed from wartime military innovations.
Describe how the following innovations impacted the US after the war:
- Bessemer Process
- Steam Powered Drill
- Incandescant Light Bulb
- Allowed for the mass-production of affordable steel.
- Made it easier to access oil that could be used in kerosene lamps.
- Businesses were able to work longer hours and presented fewer fire risks.
Describe the factors that led to industrial growth after the Civil War.
- Advancements in technology led to mass production of steel.
- These advancements allowed for rapid expansion of railroads.
- Businesses could then sell products all over the country.
- Businesses made more money, with some Americans becoming the richest in US history.
Identify what each of the following Gilded Age figures is known for:
- Thomas Edison
- Andrew Carnegie
- John D Rockefeller
- Innovator whose New Jersey laboratory developed many Gilded Age innovation- like the incandescant light bulb.
- Former child labor work, who eventually started a successful steel company in Pittsburgh, PA.
- Founder of Standard Oil Co, out of Cleveland; controlled 90% of the nation’s oil supply during the Gilded Age.
Describe the living conditions of average Americans during the Gilded Age.
- Although the Gilded Age saw extreme wealth for a few, MOST Americans lived in crowded, urban homes called tenements.
- These tenements lacked running water, electricity, indoor restrooms; which ~10 people living in a single room.
Describe the working conditions of average Americans during the Gilded Age.
- Most workers faced incredibly long hours (12+ hours days/6 days a week).
- Workers were paid very little; often less than a dollar per day.
- Conditions in factories were dangerous; even deadly.
- Many factories employed young children (as young as 3) in dangerous conditions.
Describe how laborers responded to their poor working conditions.
- Many workers joined labor unions, to challenge powerful companies.
- These groups organized protests, strikes, boycotts and more to challenge factory owners to improve conditions.
Describe why the period of industrial growth after the Civil War is called the Gilded Age.
- At the surface, this period appears to be a successful time for the United States; largely due to the extreme wealth accumulated by men like Carnagie and Rockefeller.
- However, most Americans faced absolutely horrible working and living conditions due to the exploitive behaviors of the wealthy.
Explain why many Americans moved West after the Civil War.
- After experiencing such a brutal conflict, many Americans appealed to the new opportunities life in the West presented.
- Many Americans believed it was the nation’s “Manifest Destiny” to spread American ideals to the the West.
Identify what developments directly encouraged westward expansion after the Civil War.
- Completion of the transcontinental railroad.
- Passage of the Homestead Act.
Identify the challenges facing settlers who moved West after the Civil War.
- Locusts plagues destroyed crops.
- Conflicts with Native Americans.
- Severe weather, including tornadoes, blizzards, and drought.
- Treeless plains forced people to built mud huts for homes; called soddies.
Describe how westward expansion after the Civil War impacted Native populations.
- Many violent conflicts broke out between white settlers and the Natives- often over land disputes.
- Many treaties were created that stripped Native Americans of their land ownership.
Describe the following conflicts that occurred with Native populations:
- Massacre at Sand Creek
- Battle of Little Bighorn
- Wounded Knee Massacre
- US Army attack on Natives in Colorado after gold was discovered nearby; over 100 women and children were brutally killed while men were away hunting.
- Conflict that broke out after Lt. Gen. Custer was sent by the US Army to land where gold was discovered; the Natives killed Custer and his men.
- Violent attack against Natives in the Dakotas; started after US officials mistook a Native Ghost Dance ceremony for a warrior dance. Over 300 Natives were killed.
Explain how the federal government justified their attacks on the Natives.
- They called the Natives barbaric and uncivilized.
- Considered the Natives to be the dangerous aggressors who needed to be controlled for safety and order in the West.
Describe the purpose of the Dawes Act.
- The Dawes Act divided up Native communal lands into small plots- stripped them of 13 million acres of land.
- The government believed that such “assimilation” policies would “Americanize” the “savage” Natives, preventing future conflict.
Describe how the introduction of steel tools impacted western farming
- Production of farm goods increased.
- Created financial hardship for poor farmers who struggled to afford such tools.
Identify the actions taken by western farmers to address their hardships.
- Farmers joined farmers alliances; sharing farm tools and attending social events.
- Leaders in the farmers alliance movement formed a political party- the Populist Party- to bring attention to the needs of poor farmers and laborers.
Describe the ideas supported by the Populist Party.
- Populist supported policies that benefits poor farmers and laborers
- They wanted more regulation of banks and businesses who they viewed as unfair.
- They supported replacing the gold standard with bimetallism- to be able to print more money with minimal increase in inflation.
Describe how the US population changed entering the 20th century.
- The overall population of the US increased dramatically.
- More Americans lived in urban areas compared with rural areas.
Explain why the US population changed entering the 20th century.
- Immigration to the US increased dramatically.
- Most jobs available were factory jobs in large urban centers.
Contrast immigration patterns near the start of the 20th century with today.
- Entering the 20th century, most immigrants arriving in America traveled from Europe.
- Today, most immigrants arrive in the US from Central and South America or Asia.
Describe how increased immigration impacted American cities entering the 20th century.
- Urban centers, especially in the Northeast, grew very quickly.
- This caused overcrowding and poor living conditions– with most immigrants residing in tenements.
Describe and provide examples of the following causes of immigration
- Push Factors
- Pull Factors
- Conditions within an individual’s home country that cause them to leave. Ex. Starvation/famine; war; political repression.
- Qualities or opportunities that attract an individual to a new place. Ex. Political and Religious freedom; jobs; peace.
Describe the purpose of the following locations:
- Ellis Island
- Angel Island
Both Ellis and Angel Island were government processing centers for new immigrants.
1. Ellis Island: Located in NYC processed European immigrants.
2. Angel Island: Located in San Francisco, processed Asian Immigrants.
Explain why many considered America a “melting pot” entering the 20th century.
With increased immigration, the US became a country filled with many diverse cultures, languages, relgiions and more, blending together into a unified society.
Describe how nativism impacted the US entering the 20th century.
- As immigration increased, many Americans developed nativist beliefs– suggesting that native-born Americans were superior to new immigrants.
- These beliefs led to policies- like the Chinese Exclusion Act- which aimed to restrict immigration from places the US considered less desirable.
Identify the challenges facing urban residents entering the 20th century.
- Poverty
- Disease
- Crime/petty theft
- Dangerous fires
- Unsanitary streets + water
Describe how incidents like the Great Chicago Fire and Triangle Shirtwaist Factory Fire impacted urban communities.
- Both incidents were incredibly deadly events- largely due to poor emergency response and poor building regulations.
- Afterward, cities began improving their emergency response (creation of fire departments), adopting building codes and workplace safety standards.
Describe what caused the Johnstown (PA) Flood.
- Greedy business leaders, like Henry Clay Frick, prioritized improvements to their Hunting and Fishing Club over the safety of a nearby dam.
- During a rainstrom- the dam burst- violently flooding Johnstown, PA- killing thousands of residents; deadliest manmade disaster in the US before 9/11
Identify the factors that led to the creation of political machines.
- Rapid urbanization caused many issues in large cities that needed to be addressed.
- All levels of the US government were ineffective at addressing these issues.
- Poor and immigrant residents relied on political machines to find housing and jobs– because no one else was able to help.
Describe how Boss Tweed demonstrated the drawbacks of poltical machines.
Although political machines were supposed to resolve corruption and ineffective government– leaders like William “Boss” Tweed were just as corrupt– embezzling millions from the cities they were supposed to help.
Identify the challenges Black Americans continued to face AFTER Reconstruction
Jim Crow Laws were adopted, resulting in increased segregation, voting restrictions, and other limits on Black freedom.
Describe the purpose of racial etiquette rules in American society.
Rules such as a Black and white man not being allowed to shake hands were created to suggest that Black people were inferior– even though the Constitution was supposed to provide equal citizenship.
Explain how the following topics impacted society after Reconstruction:
- Segregation
- Racial Violence
- Voting Restrictions
- All facilties, public and private, were separated between the races; created unequal access to services in society.
- Violent attacks, espeically lynching, targeting anyone not willing to abide by the racial rules adopted after Reconstruction.
- Poll taxes, literacy tests, the grandfather clause, and threats of violence were used to disenfranchise (prevent) Black men from voting.
Describe the following elements of the Plessy v. Ferguson case:
- Historical situation of the case
- Supreme Court decision in case
- Homer Plessy, who was 1/8th Black, bought a train ticket to challenge Louisiana segregation laws.
- The Supreme Court approved of the segregation rules, saying that states could legally segregate- as long as facilities were “separate but equal”; this allowed segregation to be legal for decades.
Identify the following early civil rights activists:
- Booker T. Washington
- W.E.B. DuBois
- Ida B. Wells
- Civil rights leader who believed economic progress would allow for Black equality. Helped establish the Tuskegee institute– providing education to train Black students for jobs in engineerings.
- Civil rights leader who used photographs to demonstrate Black progress and promoted the Niagara Movement to support widespread changes for Black Americans; founding member of the NAACP.
- Civil rights leaders who frequently wrote about the horrors lynching in American society. Founding member of the NAACP and promoter of women’s suffrage.
Describe the purpose of the NAACP
The National Association for the Advancement of Colored People was established in 1909 to ensure the constitutional rights and educational opportunities of Black Americans.
Describe how Native American populations experienced societal inequality entering the 20th century.
- The federal government establishment boarding schools, such as the Carlisle Indian School, where Native children were sent.
- These facilities were created to assimilate, or “Americanize,” these children– however, they faced many forms of abuse at these schools.
Describe the conditions that caused the Progressive Movement
During the Gilded Age, most Americans faced horrible conditions that the government failed to address; such as: their unsafe living and working conditions.
Explain how the following helped start Progressive Era reform:
- Social Gospel Movement
- Settlement House Movement
- Middle class church members sought to improve society, creating charitable organizations like the Salvation Army and YMCA.
- Reformers like established facilities to provide services to urban poor. Such as: Jane Addams’ Hull House in Chicago.
Describe how muckrakers impacted changes to the following issues
- Food and Medicine
- Big Business/Monopolies
- Living Conditions
- Working Conditions
- Upton Sinclair wrote the Jungle describing the unsanitary conditions in food manufaturing -> the government created the Meat Inspection Act and the FDA to monitor food production.
- Ida Tarbell wrote about John D. Rockefeller’s unfair business tactics -> the government began using the Sherman Antitrust Act to break up big businesses.
- Jacob Riis took photographs of tenement living -> cities began creating building codes that required windows, bathrooms, lighting, and fire safety in urban living.
- Lewis Hine took photographs of child labor workers -> state and federal laws were passed restricting the use of child labor.
Describe how progressive reformer Carry Nation hoped to improve society.
Nation was a supporter of prohibition, banning of alcohol sales, due to the issues of alcoholism and domestic abuse.
Explain how state and local governments contriubuted to Progressive reform.
- Before the federal government acted on progressive reform– state and local governments tackled such reforms.
- Many states took action against child labor and other unfair business practices.
Describe how President Teddy Roosevelt addressed progressive reform.
- TR established the “Square Deal” to tackle many progressive policies.
- TR launched conservation programs- such as the US Forestry Service.
- TR used the Sherman Antitrust Act to increase regualtions on big business.
- TR signed the Meat Inspection Act and Pure Food and Drug Act to make food and medicine safer.
Identify the factors that influenced the 1912 Election.
- President Taft and Former President Roosevelt split Republican voters.
- Roosevelt ran the most successful 3rd Party campaign in history, placing 2nd, on behalf of the Progressive “Bull-Moose” Party
Describe how President Wilson promoted equality of economic opportunity.
- Wilson supported the creation of the Federal Reserve- to create more stability in the economy.
- Wilson signed off on the creation of the Federal Trade Commission (FTC)- which increased regulations on big businesses.
Describe the lives of women during the 18th and 19th centuries
- Women had no poltiical or legal rights in society.
- Women were expected to operate in the domestic sphere- caring for children and taking care of the home.
Describe how women fought for the right to vote during the Progressive Movement.
- Women, like Ida B. Wells, participated in other social reforms.
- Women, like Alice Paul and Carrie Chapman Catt, organized parades, protests, and petititons.
- Women contributed to the World War I war effort.
Identify the following Progressive Era Amendments:
- 16th Amendment
- 17th Amendment
- 18th Amendment
- 19th Amendment
- Developed a graduated federal income tax in the United States.
- Established the process where American citizens directly elect their US Senators.
- Prohibited the sale of alcohol in the United States.
- Granted American women the right to vote.
Describe how Progressive Reform…
- Contributed to Lasting Changes
- Failed to Address Social Issues
- Many programs and policies established during the Progressive Era survive today: conservation efforts like national parks, food and medicine regualtions under the FDA, regulations on big businesses by the FTC, and women’s voting rights.
- Other issues were not addressed during the Progressive Era or have not survived over history, such as: prohibition was overturned a couple of decades later and the federal government failed to address civil rights– including anti-lynching legislation Ida B Wells fought for.
Describe imperialism, as practiced by the US during the late 19th and early 20th century.
When a country takes over or gets involved in another location for economic, financial, or military gain; often resulting in conflict.
Identify the factors that caused the US to begin imperializing.
- The United States wanted to compete with foreign powers.
- The United States wanted to expand its economy with useful resources.
- The United States wanted to expand the power of its military.
Describe how the US acquired its 49th and 50th states: Alaska and Hawaii
- The US purchased Alaska from Russia in 1867.
- After a period of growing economic involvement, American business leaders convinced the US Navy to overthrow Queen Liliokalani who had been promoting a “Hawaii for Hawaiians” agenda; Soon after, the US annexed the Hawaiian islands.
Explain the controversy that surrounded the US’ annexation of Hawaii
Both the Hawaiian Queen and the Hawaiian public did not want to be annexed by the US and considered the actions of the Americans to be unjust.
Identify the factors that caused the US to enter the Spanish-American War.
- Residents in Spanish-controlled Cuba began revolting- hoping to gain independence.
- Spain brutally repressed these Cubans, including the creation of concentration camps- raising concern among Americans
- The US sent a ship, the USS Maine, to Cuba to protect Americans living there. The ship mysteriously blew up, which newspapers blamed on the Spanish.
Describe who the Rough Riders were during the Spanish American War.
Volunteer calvary group led by Teddy Roosevelt; fought in Cuba during the Spanish-American War.
Describe the impact of the Treaty of Paris (1898)
- At the end of the Spanish American War the US was granted new territories, formerly controlled by Spain: Guam and Puerto Rico
- The US was granted permission to annex the Philippines from Spain for $20 million- making the Philippines a US territory.
- Cuba gained its independence.
Describe the significance of the Platt Amendment
Although Cuba became independent after the Spanish American War, the Platt Amendment gave the US special privileges in Cuba, such as the ability to build a naval base (Guantanamo Bay).
Describe the controvery that erupted in the Philippines after the Spanish American War.
- The Filipinos believed they were destined to gain their independence after the war– and did not want to be annexed by the US.
- Emilio Aguinaldo led a revolt against the US, trying to gain Filipino independence.
Describe why some Americans opposed US Imperialism.
- Members of the Anti-Imperialist League believed that American actions in the Philippines and Hawaii were unjust.
- They argued these actions were hypocritical and contradicted the founding principles of the US.
Describe how the following Presidents backed imperialism:
- McKinley
- T. Roosevelt
- Wilson
- McKinley annexed Hawaii and backed US involvement in Spanish American War.
- Roosevelt supported construction of the Panama Canal and “Big Stick Diplomacy”
- Wilson encouraged US involvement in Mexico through his belief in moral diplomacy
Describe the causes and effects of American imperialism in China.
- Causes: Many other foreign powers were already involved in China and the US wanted to join. The US presented the “Open Door Notes” to propose eliminated spheres of influence so all countries could trade freely in China.
- Effects: Chinese peasants organized against foreign involvement in the Boxer Rebellion. In response to this revolt, foreign militaries from many countries (including the US) took action to stop the revolt.
Describe how construction of the Panama Canal benefited the US
It sped up the movement of ships between the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans; benefiting the US economy and military.
Identify and Describe the MAIN Causes of WWI.
- Militarism: the belief that a country should develop and maintain a strong military force, and aggressively use it where necessary to defend the nation’s interests.
- Alliances: an agreement between two or more countries to support each other during war.
- Imperialism: gaining political and economic control of territories across the globe.
- Nationalism: an intense form of patriotism or loyalty to one’s country; exaggerating the importance of the home country and placing its interests above other nations.
Describe how the death of Archduke Franz Ferdinand resulted in WWI
- After the death of the Austro-Hungarian Archduke and his wife, they declared war on the assassin’ homeland- Serbia.
- Because of the alliances each country had, Austria Hungary with Germany and Serbia with Russia, those countries joined; as well as other countries they had alliances with.
Identify the reasons the US had for remaining neutral at the start of WWI.
- The United States is a nation of immigrants, with large populations from nations on both sides of the conflict.
- Many Americans believed that WWI was just another European war, far away from the US, and not their problem.
Explain how the US supported the WWI war effort before entering the conflict officially.
- Although the United States was officially a neutral nation, they sold war supplies and gave loans to warring nations.
- While they provided these supports to both sides, they gave substantially more to the Allied powers (GB and France)
Explain why it was difficult for the US to maintain neutrality during WWI.
- Ships carrying American supplies and civilians became subject to attack by warring nations.
- Such as the Lusitania, which was attacked by Germany in 1915
Explain how Germany justified its attack on the Lusitania.
- Germany had recently adopted a policy of unrestricted submarine warfare because American businesses began secretly sending supplies to Britain on passenger ships.
- They believed that the US was being deceptive and not as neutral as they claimed to be.
Identify the reasons President Wilson gave for entering WWI.
- To respond to Germany’s unrestricted submarine warfare against American ships.
- To address the threat posed by the intercepted Zimmermann Telegram.
- To protect the freedom and lives of neutral nations during wartime.
Describe how the US government mobilized for WWI.
- Selective Service System was developed to register men for the military; increased the size of the US Army substantially.
- Committee on Public Information was developed to produce government propaganda- encouraging Americans to support the war effort,
- US Food Administration was developed, encouraging people to participate in voluntary rationing programs.
- Liberty bonds were sold to raise money to support the war effort.
Identify what a conscientious objector is during wartime.
An individual who does not want to participate in combat, often due to religious or moral beliefs.
Describe why some Americans remained opposed to fighting in WWI.
Due to their religious or moral beliefs, some Americans qualified as conscientious objectors and did not serve in comabt during the war– instead serving in various support roles (like medics or cooks).
Describe how the Espionage and Sedition Acts approached dissent during WWI
The US government passed these laws to limit the constitutional rights of Americans- including the freedom of speech- to limit opposition to the war.
Describe how wartime sentiment targeted German-Americans during WWI.
- German language was banned from being taught in schools.
- German cultural traditions were outlawed.
- German shops and restaurants were discouraged.
Identify the factors that enabled the spread of the Spanish Flu during WWI.
- American men were crowded onto Army bases where they lived and trained.
- Large gatherings, such as parades, were held to sell liberty bonds.
- Many workers spent long hours in crowded factories in polluted communities.
- Soldiers traveled overseas where they spent significant time in crowded, unsanitary trenches.
Identify how women contributed to the war effort during WWI.
- Women worked to ration food and plant liberty gardens at home.
- Women worked in factories, often developing ammunition.
- Women served as nurses, often in the American Red Cross.
- Women worked as “Hello Girls” supporting Allied communications
- Women bought liberty bonds.
Describe how WWI impacted women’s status in American society
Women were granted the right to vote with the passage of the 19th Amendment largely because of their considerable efforts to support the war.
Describe what the Great Migration was starting during WWI.
Mass migration of Black Americans from the South to the North and West.
Identify the factors that contributed to the Great Migration.
- Many Black Americans were attracted to move by the promise of open factory jobs during the war.
- Many Black Americans moved due to their desire to escape the Jim Crow South and racial violence.
- Cities like Chicago, NYC, and Detroit attracted new Black American residents.
Describe how American involvement impacted WWI.
- Early on General Pershing’s AEF served in a support role, however, led important offensives late in the war.
- Arriving shortly after Russia left the war, the US provided a morale boost and supplies for the tired allies.
Identify the main goal of President Wilson’s 14 Point Plan.
Ensure that WWI would be a “war to end all wars.”
Contrast the Treaty of Versailles with the 14 Point Plan.
- Other Allied leaders wanted to destroy Germany with the Treaty of Versailles- while the 14 Point Plan focused on all countries making changes after the war.
- The Treaty of Versailles charged heavy repararations (war debt) on Germany- the 14 Point Plan did not.
- The Treaty of Versailles forced Germany to demilitarize- the 14 Point Plan wanted all countries to decrease their militaries.
- The Treaty of Versailles force Germany to accept full war guilt– the 14 Point Plan had no such provision.
Describe the effects of the Treaty of Versailles
The punishments put in place under the Treaty of Versailles destroyed the German economy, laying the foundation for other major changes ahead.
Describe the historic significance of the Lost Generation.
- The Lost Generation refers to the generation of young Americans who grew up during WWI, leaving them hopeless and questional traditional values after the war.
- Many authors of this generation worked this perspective in to their works, like Fitzgerald’s The Great Gatsby
Identify the factors that resulted in the growth of Mass Consumerism after WWI
- Increase in wages and availability of installment plans.
- Rise of advertising and marketing campaigns targeting consumers.
- Increased use of mass production techniques, like the moving assembly line, allowing prices to decrease.
Describe how popular culture and entertainment impacted society after WWI.
- The rise of theJazz Ageintroduced new music styles, that became a defining feature of 1920s culture and bridged racial divides.
- Sports heroes, such asBabe Ruth, became national celebrities as Americans followed their achievements.
- Theradiohelped spread popular culture by broadcasting music, sports, and news to homes across the nation, creating a shared cultural experience.
- Popular fashion and beauty standards became more modern, contributing to the rapidly growing economy.
Identify innovations that were widely adopted after WWI.
- Refrigerator
- Vacuum Cleaners.
- Radio
- Automobile
Describe the causes and effects of advancements in transportation after WWI.
- Causes: During WWI, the moving assembly was widely adopted in manufacturing. Large-scale production of automobiles allowed prices to drop considerably.
- Effects: Significant increase in automobile ownership across the country- espeically Ford’s Model T. As a result, traffic increases, forcing communities to construct highways and add traffic lights.
Describe how the introduction of the 19th Amendment transformed the lives of women during the 1920s.
- Women increased their political participation and became more economically and socially independent after World War I.
- The “New Women” of the 1920s challenged traditional boundaries through their fashion, independent lifestyles in urban areas, and emergence as prominent celebrities (like Clara Bow)
Identify the factors that caused the emergence of the Harlem Renaissance.
- Increased number of Black Americans in northern communities, such as Harlem in NYC.
- Rising availability of radio increased the popularity of modern music, especially Jazz.
Describe the impact the Harlem Renaissance had on Black Americans.
- It provided a platform for Black artists, such as Louis Armstrong, to showcase their talents and gain national recognition in music, literature, and art.
- It celebrated Black culture and identity, inspiring pride and encouraging a sense of community among Black Americans.
