Urinary System Flashcards
Introduction
• Breathing represents life!
– first breath of newborn baby to last at death
• All body processes directly or indirectly require ATP
– ATP synthesis requires O2 & produces CO2
– drives our need to breathe
Introduction
• Breathing represents life!
– first breath of newborn baby to last at death
• All body processes directly or indirectly require ATP
– ATP synthesis requires O2 & produces CO2
– drives our need to breathe
Respiratory System
• System of tubes that delivers air to lungs
• Respiratory & cardiovascular systems collaborate to deliver O2 to tissues & remove CO2
– “cardiopulmonary system” – disorders of one affects other
• Respiratory system & urinary system collaborate to regulate acid–base balance
Respiratory System
• System of tubes that delivers air to lungs
• Respiratory & cardiovascular systems collaborate to deliver O2 to tissues & remove CO2
– “cardiopulmonary system” – disorders of one affects other
• Respiratory system & urinary system collaborate to regulate acid–base balance
Respiratory System: Functions
– provides O2 & CO2 exchange
– serves for speech / vocalizations
– provides for sense of smell
– affects pH of body fluids
– affects blood pressure (convert angiotensin)
– creates respiratory pump - promotes flow of lymph & venous blood
– breath-holding helps expel abdominal contents during urination, defecation, childbirth (Valsalva maneuver)
Respiratory System: Functions
– provides O2 & CO2 exchange
– serves for speech / vocalizations
– provides for sense of smell
– affects pH of body fluids
– affects blood pressure (convert angiotensin)
– creates respiratory pump - promotes flow of lymph & venous blood
– breath-holding helps expel abdominal contents during urination, defecation, childbirth (Valsalva maneuver)
Respiratory System: Anatomy
• Nose, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, lungs
– bronchial tree to alveoli
• millions of thin-walled air sacs
• exchanges gases w/ blood through alveolar wall
• Conducting division
– passages serve only for airflow
– no gas exchange
– nostrils –> –> major bronchioles
• Respiratory division
– alveoli & other gas exchange regions
• Upper respiratory tract—head & neck
– nose –> larynx
• Lower respiratory tract—thorax
– trachea –> lungs
Respiratory System: Anatomy
• Nose, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, lungs
– bronchial tree to alveoli
• millions of thin-walled air sacs
• exchanges gases w/ blood through alveolar wall
• Conducting division
– passages serve only for airflow
– no gas exchange
– nostrils –> –> major bronchioles
• Respiratory division
– alveoli & other gas exchange regions
• Upper respiratory tract—head & neck
– nose –> larynx
• Lower respiratory tract—thorax
– trachea –> lungs
Identify
Identify
Nose
• Functions
– filters, warms, humidifies inhaled air
– detects odors
– is resonating chamber - amplifies voice
• Nose = nostrils (nares) to posterior nasal apertures
Nose
• Functions
– filters, warms, humidifies inhaled air
– detects odors
– is resonating chamber - amplifies voice
• Nose = nostrils (nares) to posterior nasal apertures
Nose
• Three folds of tissue— nasal conchae
– superior, middle, and inferior nasal conchae (turbinates)
- project from lateral walls toward septum
- meatus—narrow air passage beneath conchae
- ensures that air contacts mucous membranes – filters, warms, moistens
Nose
• Three folds of tissue— nasal conchae
– superior, middle, and inferior nasal conchae (turbinates)
- project from lateral walls toward septum
- meatus—narrow air passage beneath conchae
- ensures that air contacts mucous membranes – filters, warms, moistens
Nose
• Olfactory epithelium—detects odors
– ciliated pseudostratified columnar epithelium
– immobile cilia bind odorant molecules
Respiratory epithelium
– ciliated pseudostratified columnar epithelium w/ goblet cells
– cilia = motile
– goblet cells secrete mucus; cilia propel mucus toward pharynx
– swallowed
Nose
• Olfactory epithelium—detects odors
– ciliated pseudostratified columnar epithelium
– immobile cilia bind odorant molecules
Respiratory epithelium
– ciliated pseudostratified columnar epithelium w/ goblet cells
– cilia = motile
– goblet cells secrete mucus; cilia propel mucus toward pharynx
– swallowed
Respiratory Epithelium
Respiratory Epithelium
Upper Respiratory Tract: Anatomy
Upper Respiratory Tract: Anatomy
Pharynx
• Pharynx (throat)—from posterior nasal apertures to larynx
• 3 regions
– Nasopharynx
• posterior to nasal apertures, above soft palate
• receives auditory tubes & contains pharyngeal tonsil
– Oropharynx
• space betw/ soft palate & epiglottis
• contains palatine tonsils
– Laryngopharynx
• epiglottis to cricoid cartilage
• esophagus begins at that point
Pharynx
• Pharynx (throat)—from posterior nasal apertures to larynx
• 3 regions
– Nasopharynx
• posterior to nasal apertures, above soft palate
• receives auditory tubes & contains pharyngeal tonsil
– Oropharynx
• space betw/ soft palate & epiglottis
• contains palatine tonsils
– Laryngopharynx
• epiglottis to cricoid cartilage
• esophagus begins at that point
Upper Respiratory Tract: Anatomy
Upper Respiratory Tract: Anatomy
Pharynx
• Nasopharynx passes only air
– pseudostratified columnar epithelium
• Oropharynx & laryngopharynx pass air, food, & drink
– stratified squamous epithelium
Pharynx
• Nasopharynx passes only air
– pseudostratified columnar epithelium
• Oropharynx & laryngopharynx pass air, food, & drink
– stratified squamous epithelium
Larynx
• Larynx (voice box)—cartilaginous chamber
• Primary function - keep food / drink out of airway
– additional role: phonation— production of sound!
Larynx
• Larynx (voice box)—cartilaginous chamber
• Primary function - keep food / drink out of airway
– additional role: phonation— production of sound!
Larynx
• Epiglottis—flap of tissue - guards superior opening of larynx
– at rest, almost vertical
– during swallowing, larynx moves upward
– tongue pushes epiglottis down to meet it
– closes airway & directs food to esophagus
– vestibular folds of larynx play greater role in keeping food & drink out of airway
Larynx
• Epiglottis—flap of tissue - guards superior opening of larynx
– at rest, almost vertical
– during swallowing, larynx moves upward
– tongue pushes epiglottis down to meet it
– closes airway & directs food to esophagus
– vestibular folds of larynx play greater role in keeping food & drink out of airway
Identify
Identify
Larynx
• Nine cartilages make up framework of larynx
• First 3 solitary & relatively large
– Epiglottic cartilage: spoon-shaped supportive plate in epiglottis; most superior one
– Thyroid cartilage: largest, laryngeal prominence, shield- shaped
• testosterone in males –> Adam’s apple
– Cricoid cartilage: connects larynx to trachea, ring-shaped
Larynx
• Nine cartilages make up framework of larynx
• First 3 solitary & relatively large
– Epiglottic cartilage: spoon-shaped supportive plate in epiglottis; most superior one
– Thyroid cartilage: largest, laryngeal prominence, shield- shaped
• testosterone in males –> Adam’s apple
– Cricoid cartilage: connects larynx to trachea, ring-shaped
Identify
Identify
Larynx
• Interior wall: two folds on each side betw/ thyroid & arytenoid cartilages
– Superior vestibular folds
• no role in speech
• close larynx during swallowing
– Inferior vocal cords
• produce sound when air passes betw/ them
- contain vocal ligaments
- covered w/ stratified squamous epithelium
- glottis—vocal cords & opening betw/ them
Larynx
• Interior wall: two folds on each side betw/ thyroid & arytenoid cartilages
– Superior vestibular folds
• no role in speech
• close larynx during swallowing
– Inferior vocal cords
• produce sound when air passes betw/ them
- contain vocal ligaments
- covered w/ stratified squamous epithelium
- glottis—vocal cords & opening betw/ them
Larynx - folds
Larynx - folds
Respiratory Tract: Endoscopic view
Respiratory Tract: Endoscopic view
Larynx
Adult male vocal cords
• usually longer & thicker
• vibrate slower, lower-pitched sound
– Loudness: determined by force of air passing betw/ vocal cords
– vocal cords produce crude sounds; words formed by pharynx, oral cavity, tongue & lips
Larynx
Adult male vocal cords
• usually longer & thicker
• vibrate slower, lower-pitched sound
– Loudness: determined by force of air passing betw/ vocal cords
– vocal cords produce crude sounds; words formed by pharynx, oral cavity, tongue & lips
Trachea
• Trachea—rigid tube about 4.5 in. long & 1 in. in diameter
– anterior to esophagus
– supported by C-shaped rings of hyaline cartilage
– reinforces trachea; keeps it from collapsing during inhalation
Trachea
• Trachea—rigid tube about 4.5 in. long & 1 in. in diameter
– anterior to esophagus
– supported by C-shaped rings of hyaline cartilage
– reinforces trachea; keeps it from collapsing during inhalation
Trachea
• Inner lining - ciliated pseudostratified columnar epithelium
– mucus-secreting cells, ciliated cells, & stem cells
– mucociliary escalator: mechanism for debris removal
• mucus traps inhaled particles
• upward beating cilia drive mucus toward pharynx
Trachea
• Inner lining - ciliated pseudostratified columnar epithelium
– mucus-secreting cells, ciliated cells, & stem cells
– mucociliary escalator: mechanism for debris removal
• mucus traps inhaled particles
• upward beating cilia drive mucus toward pharynx
Tracheostomy
• Tracheostomy—temporary opening in trachea inferior to larynx; tube inserted to allow airflow
– prevents asphyxiation due to upper airway obstruction
– inhaled air bypasses nasal cavity, so not humidified
– if left too long, mucous membranes dry out, promoting infection
Tracheostomy
• Tracheostomy—temporary opening in trachea inferior to larynx; tube inserted to allow airflow
– prevents asphyxiation due to upper airway obstruction
– inhaled air bypasses nasal cavity, so not humidified
– if left too long, mucous membranes dry out, promoting infection
Cricothyroidotomy
Cricothyroidotomy
Lower Respiratory Tract: Anatomy
Lower Respiratory Tract: Anatomy
Bronchial Tree
• Bronchial tree—branching air tubes in each lung – from main bronchus to 65,000 terminal bronchioles!
- Main (primary) bronchi—supported by C-shaped hyaline cartilage rings
- Lobar (secondary) bronchi—supported by crescent-shaped cartilage plates
- Segmental (tertiary) bronchi—same (plates)
- all lined w/ ciliated pseudostratified columnar epithelium
Bronchial Tree
• Bronchial tree—branching air tubes in each lung – from main bronchus to 65,000 terminal bronchioles!
- Main (primary) bronchi—supported by C-shaped hyaline cartilage rings
- Lobar (secondary) bronchi—supported by crescent-shaped cartilage plates
- Segmental (tertiary) bronchi—same (plates)
- all lined w/ ciliated pseudostratified columnar epithelium
Primary Bronchi
Primary Bronchi
Lungs & Bronchial Tree
• Lung—conical shape
– broad, concave base on diaphragm
– apex projects slightly above clavicle
– costal surface: pressed against ribcage
– mediastinal surface: faces medially toward heart
• hilum—slit through which lung receives main bronchus, blood vessels, lymphatics, & nerves
• root of lung
Lungs & Bronchial Tree
• Lung—conical shape
– broad, concave base on diaphragm
– apex projects slightly above clavicle
– costal surface: pressed against ribcage
– mediastinal surface: faces medially toward heart
• hilum—slit through which lung receives main bronchus, blood vessels, lymphatics, & nerves
• root of lung
Lungs: Gross Anatomy
Lungs: Gross Anatomy
Lungs & Bronchial Tree
• Lungs: non-symmetrical
– right lung
• shorter b/c of liver
• three lobes—superior, middle, & inferior— separated by horizontal & oblique fissure
– left lung
• taller & narrower b/c heart tilts left
• indentation—cardiac impression
• two lobes—superior & inferior separated by single oblique fissure
Lungs & Bronchial Tree
• Lungs: non-symmetrical
– right lung
• shorter b/c of liver
• three lobes—superior, middle, & inferior— separated by horizontal & oblique fissure
– left lung
• taller & narrower b/c heart tilts left
• indentation—cardiac impression
• two lobes—superior & inferior separated by single oblique fissure
Lungs
Lungs
Bronchial Tree
• Bronchioles
– lack cartilage
– < 1 mm diameter
– pulmonary lobule: portion of lung ventilated by one bronchiole
– ciliated cuboidal epithelium
– well-developed smooth muscle – divides into 50-80 terminal bronchioles
Bronchial Tree
• Bronchioles
– lack cartilage
– < 1 mm diameter
– pulmonary lobule: portion of lung ventilated by one bronchiole
– ciliated cuboidal epithelium
– well-developed smooth muscle – divides into 50-80 terminal bronchioles
Bronchial Tree
Respiratory bronchioles
– alveoli budding from walls
– divide into 2-10 alveolar ducts
– end in alveolar sacs: clusters of alveoli arrayed around
Bronchial Tree
Respiratory bronchioles
– alveoli budding from walls
– divide into 2-10 alveolar ducts
– end in alveolar sacs: clusters of alveoli arrayed around
Alveoli
• 150 million alveoli in each lung, providing ~ 70 m2 of surface for gas exchange
• cells
– Squamous (type I) alveolar cells
• thin, broad cells - allow for rapid gas diffusion betw/ alveolus & blood
• cover 95% of alveolus surface area
Alveoli
• 150 million alveoli in each lung, providing ~ 70 m2 of surface for gas exchange
• cells
– Squamous (type I) alveolar cells
• thin, broad cells - allow for rapid gas diffusion betw/ alveolus & blood
• cover 95% of alveolus surface area
Alveoli
– Great (type II) alveolar cells
• round / cuboidal cells - cover other 5% of alveolar surface
• repair alveolar epithelium when squamous (type I) cells damaged
• secrete pulmonary surfactant
– phospholipids & proteins that coat alveoli; prevent collapsing during exhalation
Alveoli
– Great (type II) alveolar cells
• round / cuboidal cells - cover other 5% of alveolar surface
• repair alveolar epithelium when squamous (type I) cells damaged
• secrete pulmonary surfactant
– phospholipids & proteins that coat alveoli; prevent collapsing during exhalation
Alveoli
– Alveolar macrophages (dust cells)
• most numerous cells in lung!
• wander in & betw/ alveoli
• phagocytize dust particles
• 100 million dust cells perish each day as they ride up mucociliary escalator to be swallowed & digested
Alveoli
– Alveolar macrophages (dust cells)
• most numerous cells in lung!
• wander in & betw/ alveoli
• phagocytize dust particles
• 100 million dust cells perish each day as they ride up mucociliary escalator to be swallowed & digested
Alveoli
Alveoli
Alveoli
- each alveolus surrounded by basket of capillaries supplied by pulmonary artery
- Respiratory membrane—barrier betw/ alveolar air & blood
- important to prevent fluid accumulation in alveoli
Alveoli
- each alveolus surrounded by basket of capillaries supplied by pulmonary artery
- Respiratory membrane—barrier betw/ alveolar air & blood
- important to prevent fluid accumulation in alveoli
Respiratory System
Respiratory System
Pleurae
• Visceral pleura—serous membrane, covers lungs
• Parietal pleura—adheres to mediastinum, inner surface of rib cage, & superior surface of diaphragm
• Pleural cavity—potential space betw/ pleurae
– film of slippery pleural fluid
• Functions:
– reduce friction
– create pressure gradient
• assists lung inflation – compartmentalize
• prevents spread of infection
Pleurae
• Visceral pleura—serous membrane, covers lungs
• Parietal pleura—adheres to mediastinum, inner surface of rib cage, & superior surface of diaphragm
• Pleural cavity—potential space betw/ pleurae
– film of slippery pleural fluid
• Functions:
– reduce friction
– create pressure gradient
• assists lung inflation – compartmentalize
• prevents spread of infection
Breathing
• Breathing (pulmonary ventilation)—repetitive cycle of inspiration & expiration
• Respiratory cycle = one complete inspiration & expiration
– quiet respiration: effortless & automatic – forced respiration: deep, rapid breathing, e.g. exercise
- Air flow depends on pressure difference - outside air vs. air inside lungs
- Breathing muscles change lung volumes, create pressure differences relative to atmosphere
Breathing
• Breathing (pulmonary ventilation)—repetitive cycle of inspiration & expiration
• Respiratory cycle = one complete inspiration & expiration
– quiet respiration: effortless & automatic – forced respiration: deep, rapid breathing, e.g. exercise
- Air flow depends on pressure difference - outside air vs. air inside lungs
- Breathing muscles change lung volumes, create pressure differences relative to atmosphere
Respiratory Muscles
• Diaphragm
– Prime mover of respiration
– contraction: diaphragm descends, thoracic cavity enlarges, air enters
– relaxation: diaphragm bulges upward, lungs compressed, air expelled
– accounts for 2/3 of airflow
Respiratory Muscles
• Diaphragm
– Prime mover of respiration
– contraction: diaphragm descends, thoracic cavity enlarges, air enters
– relaxation: diaphragm bulges upward, lungs compressed, air expelled
– accounts for 2/3 of airflow
Diaphragm
Diaphragm
Respiratory Muscles
• External intercostal muscles
– synergists to diaphragm
– stiffen thoracic cage during respiration
– prevent it from caving inward when diaphragm descends
– help enlarge thoracic cage
– other 1/3 of airflow
• Scalenes
– synergists to diaphragm
– hold ribs 1 & 2 stationary in quiet respiration
Respiratory Muscles
• External intercostal muscles
– synergists to diaphragm
– stiffen thoracic cage during respiration
– prevent it from caving inward when diaphragm descends
– help enlarge thoracic cage
– other 1/3 of airflow
• Scalenes
– synergists to diaphragm
– hold ribs 1 & 2 stationary in quiet respiration
Intercostals
Intercostals
Respiratory Muscles
• Normal quiet expiration
– energy-saving passive process due to elasticity of lungs & thoracic cage – as muscles relax, structures recoil to original shape & size
AIR FLOWS OUT
• Forced expiration
– rectus abdominis, internal intercostals, & others
– increase abdominal pressure pushes viscera against diaphragm increasing thoracic pressure AIR FORCED OUT
– helpful when… ?
Respiratory Muscles
• Normal quiet expiration
– energy-saving passive process due to elasticity of lungs & thoracic cage – as muscles relax, structures recoil to original shape & size
AIR FLOWS OUT
• Forced expiration
– rectus abdominis, internal intercostals, & others
– increase abdominal pressure pushes viscera against diaphragm increasing thoracic pressure AIR FORCED OUT
– helpful when… ?
Respiratory Muscles
Respiratory Muscles
Respiratory Muscles
• Valsalva maneuver—deep breath, hold it (close glottis), contract abdominal muscles to raise pressure & push organ contents out
– childbirth, urination, defecation, vomiting
Respiratory Muscles
• Valsalva maneuver—deep breath, hold it (close glottis), contract abdominal muscles to raise pressure & push organ contents out
– childbirth, urination, defecation, vomiting
Neural Control of Breathing
• Exact mechanism for setting rhythm of respiration remains unknown (no pacemaker, like heart)
• Depends on repetitive stimuli of skeletal muscles from
CNS: cerebral (conscious) & reticular formation (unconscious)
Neural Control of Breathing
• Exact mechanism for setting rhythm of respiration remains unknown (no pacemaker, like heart)
• Depends on repetitive stimuli of skeletal muscles from
CNS: cerebral (conscious) & reticular formation (unconscious)
Neural Control of Breathing
Neural Control of Breathing
Neural Control of Breathing
• Ventral Respiratory Group - inspiratory & expiratory neurons: form reverberating circuit
• Innervation
– Phrenic nerve - diaphragm – Intercostal nerves - intercostal muscles
- Dorsal Respiratory group – modifies VRG output based on other input (e.g. chemoreceptors)
- Pontine RG – modifies based on higher brain input (e.g. emotional)
Neural Control of Breathing
• Ventral Respiratory Group - inspiratory & expiratory neurons: form reverberating circuit
• Innervation
– Phrenic nerve - diaphragm – Intercostal nerves - intercostal muscles
- Dorsal Respiratory group – modifies VRG output based on other input (e.g. chemoreceptors)
- Pontine RG – modifies based on higher brain input (e.g. emotional)
Central & Peripheral Input to Respiratory Centers
• Hyperventilation—anxiety-triggered; rapid breathing expels CO2 too fast
– blood CO2 drops, pH rises –> cerebral arteries constrict
– cerebral perfusion reduced –> dizziness / fainting
• Irritant receptors—airway’s epithelial cells
– smoke, dust, pollen, excess mucus
– trigger protective reflexes –> bronchoconstriction, shallower breathing, breath-holding (apnea), coughing
Central & Peripheral Input to Respiratory Centers
• Hyperventilation—anxiety-triggered; rapid breathing expels CO2 too fast
– blood CO2 drops, pH rises –> cerebral arteries constrict
– cerebral perfusion reduced –> dizziness / fainting
• Irritant receptors—airway’s epithelial cells
– smoke, dust, pollen, excess mucus
– trigger protective reflexes –> bronchoconstriction, shallower breathing, breath-holding (apnea), coughing
Pressure, Resistance, & Airflow
• Air flow governed by same principles as blood flow!
– directly proportional to pressure difference betw/ two points – inversely proportional to resistance
– F µ P/R
• Atmospheric pressure drives respiration
– weight of air above us!
– 760 mm Hg (1 atm) at sea level
Pressure, Resistance, & Airflow
• Air flow governed by same principles as blood flow!
– directly proportional to pressure difference betw/ two points – inversely proportional to resistance
– F µ P/R
• Atmospheric pressure drives respiration
– weight of air above us!
– 760 mm Hg (1 atm) at sea level
Pressure, Resistance, & Airflow
• Inspiration:
• Boyle’s law—at constant T, pressure (P) of given quantity of gas inversely proportional to volume (V)
– if lung V increases, then internal (intrapulmonary) P decreases
• pressure falls (below atmospheric), air moves into lungs
– if lung V decreases, intrapulmonary P increases
• pressure rises (above atmospheric), air moves out of lungs
Pressure, Resistance, & Airflow
• Inspiration:
• Boyle’s law—at constant T, pressure (P) of given quantity of gas inversely proportional to volume (V)
– if lung V increases, then internal (intrapulmonary) P decreases
• pressure falls (below atmospheric), air moves into lungs
– if lung V decreases, intrapulmonary P increases
• pressure rises (above atmospheric), air moves out of lungs
Pressure, Resistance, & Airflow
• Charles’s law—volume (V) of given quantity of gas directly proportional to its temperature (T) if constant P
– cool air 16oC (60oF) increases in T when inspired
– warmed to 37oC (99oF) when it reaches alveoli
– inhaled V of 500 mL expands to 536 mL; this thermal expansion contributes to inflation of lungs
Pressure, Resistance, & Airflow
• Charles’s law—volume (V) of given quantity of gas directly proportional to its temperature (T) if constant P
– cool air 16oC (60oF) increases in T when inspired
– warmed to 37oC (99oF) when it reaches alveoli
– inhaled V of 500 mL expands to 536 mL; this thermal expansion contributes to inflation of lungs
Pressure, Resistance & Airflow
• Expiration (relaxed)
– passive process - elastic recoil of thoracic cage
– recoil compresses lungs
– V decreases – raises P (+1 cm H2O)
– air flows down pressure gradient –> out of lungs
• Forced breathing
– accessory muscles raise P up to +40 cm H2O
– LOTS of air à out of lungs!
Pressure, Resistance & Airflow
• Expiration (relaxed)
– passive process - elastic recoil of thoracic cage
– recoil compresses lungs
– V decreases – raises P (+1 cm H2O)
– air flows down pressure gradient –> out of lungs
• Forced breathing
– accessory muscles raise P up to +40 cm H2O
– LOTS of air à out of lungs!
Pressure, Resistance & Airflow
Pressure, Resistance & Airflow
Pneumothorax
• Pneumothorax—air in pleural cavity
– thoracic wall punctured
– inspiration sucks air through wound into pleural cavity
– potential space becomes air-filled cavity
– loss of negative intrapleural pressure: lungs recoil & collapse
• Atelectasis—collapse of part (or all) of lung
Pneumothorax
• Pneumothorax—air in pleural cavity
– thoracic wall punctured
– inspiration sucks air through wound into pleural cavity
– potential space becomes air-filled cavity
– loss of negative intrapleural pressure: lungs recoil & collapse
• Atelectasis—collapse of part (or all) of lung
Pneumothorax
Pneumothorax
