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Anatomy and Physiology II > Endocrine System > Flashcards

Endocrine System Flashcards

1
Q

COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS

  • nervous uses _____
  • endocrine uses _____
A

COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS

  • nervous uses NEUROTRANSMITTERS
  • endocrine uses HORMONES
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2
Q

ENDOCRINE SYSTEM

  • ____ and hormones
  • synthesis and ____
  • effects on _____
  • _____ of endocrine dysfunction
A

ENDOCRINE SYSTEM

  • ORGANS and hormones
  • synthesis and TRANSPORTATION
  • effects on TARGETS
  • PATHOLOGIES of endocrine dysfunction
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3
Q

ENDOCRINE SYSTEM: OVERVIEW

What are the 4 mechanisms of cellular communication?

A

ENDOCRINE SYSTEM: OVERVIEW

What are the 4 mechanisms of cellular communication?

  1. Gap junctions
  2. Neurotransmitters
  3. Paracrine (local) hormones
  4. Hormones
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4
Q

Describe the 4 principal mechanisms of cellular communication

A

​Describe the 4 principal mechanisms of cellular communication

  1. Gap junctions - pores in cell membrane - things move cell to cell
  2. Neurotransmitters - one neuron to another, across synaptic cleft
  3. Paracrine (local) hormones - secreted into tissue fluids, affect nearby cells
  4. Hormones - chemical messengers travel via blood to other tissues & organs
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5
Q

ENDOCRINE SYSTEM: OVERVIEW

  • _______—study of this system
  • Endocrine glands—sources of _____
  • Hormones—____ messengers transported via ____; stimulate physiological ____ in another ____, often considerable ______ away
A

ENDOCRINE SYSTEM: OVERVIEW

  • ENDOCRINOLOGY—study of this system
  • Endocrine glands—sources of HORMONES
  • Hormones—CHEMICAL messengers transported via BLOOD; stimulate physiological RESPONSES in another ORGAN, often considerable DISTANCE away
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6
Q

Comparison: Endocrine & Exocrine Glands

Exocrine glands

– ducts carry _____ to _____ surface or mucosa of ____ tract

– _____ effects (____ digestion)

Endocrine glands

– no ___!

– dense, fenestrated capillary networks allowing easy uptake of _____ into ____

– ______ effects (altering target cell _____)

A

Comparison: Endocrine & Exocrine Glands

Exocrine glands

– ducts carry SECRETIONS to EPITHELIAL surface or mucosa of DIGESTIVE tract

– EXTRACELLULAR effects (FOOD digestion)

Endocrine glands

– no DUCTS!

– dense, fenestrated capillary networks allowing easy uptake of HORMONES into BLOOD

– INTRACELLULAR effects (altering target cell METABOLISM)

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7
Q

Comparison: Nervous and Endocrine Systems

A

Comparison: Nervous and Endocrine Systems

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8
Q
  • Some chemicals function as both _____ & _______ (______, dopamine, ADH)
  • Some hormones secreted by ______ cells (neurons) into blood (______ & catecholamines)
  • Sometimes share same _____ cells (norepinephrine & glucagon cause glycogen hydrolysis in ____)
  • Systems ____ each other (Neurons trigger hormone ______ & hormones stimulate/inhibit ____)
A
  • Some chemicals function as both HORMONES & NEUROTRANSMITTERS (NOREPINEPHRINE, dopamine, ADH)
  • Some hormones secreted by NEUROENDOCRINE cells (neurons) into blood (OXYTOCIN & catecholamines)
  • Sometimes share same TARGET cells (norepinephrine & glucagon cause glycogen hydrolysis in LIVER)
  • Systems REGULATE each other (Neurons trigger hormone SECRETION & hormones stimulate/inhibit NEURONS)
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9
Q

Hypothalamus (HT): Anatomy

  • “_____ funnel”
  • forms ____ & ____ of ___ ventricle of brain
  • _____ functions from ____ balance & thermoregulation to sex drive & _____
  • many of its functions carried out by ____ gland
A

Hypothalamus (HT): Anatomy

  • “FLATTENED funnel”
  • forms FLOOR & WALLS of 3rd ventricle of brain
  • HOMEOSTATIC functions from WATER balance & thermoregulation to sex drive & CHILDBIRTH
  • many of its functions carried out by PITUITARY gland
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10
Q

Pituitary Gland: Anatomy

  • suspended from _______ by stalk— ______
  • housed in sella turcica of ____ bone
  • size & shape of ______!
  • composed of two structures w/ independent origins & separate functions

– ADENOhypophysis (____ pituitary) - from hypophyseal pouch - outgrowth of _____

– NEUROhypophysis (_____ pituitary) - downgrowth from _____

A

Pituitary Gland: Anatomy

  • suspended from HYPOTHALAMUS by stalk— INFUNDIBULUM
  • housed in sella turcica of SPHENOID bone
  • size & shape of KIDNEY BEAN!
  • composed of two structures w/ independent origins & separate functions

– ADENOhypophysis (ANTERIOR pituitary) - from hypophyseal pouch - outgrowth of PHARYNX

– NEUROhypophysis (POSTERIOR pituitary) - downgrowth from BRAIN

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11
Q

Pituitary: Anatomy

• _________ constitutes anterior ¾ of pituitary

– two segments

  • _____ lobe (pars distalis)
  • Pars tuberalis—small mass of ___ adhering to ____

– linked to HT by ______ portal system

  • primary capillaries in HT connected to secondary capillaries in _______ by ___________
  • hypothalamic releasing-hormones regulate ___________
A

Pituitary: Anatomy

• ADENOHYPOPHYSIS constitutes anterior ¾ of pituitary

– two segments

  • ANTERIOR lobe (pars distalis)
  • Pars tuberalis—small mass of CELLS adhering to STALK

– linked to HT by HYPOPHYSEAL portal system

  • primary capillaries in HT connected to secondary capillaries in ADENOHYPOPHYSIS by PORTAL VENULES
  • hypothalamic releasing-hormones regulate ADENOHYPOPHYSIS
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12
Q

Know this figure!!!

A
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13
Q

Pituitary: Anatomy

• ______ constitutes posterior ¼ of pituitary

– three parts (____ eminence, infundibulum, _____ lobe (pars nervosa)

– _____ tissue! not a true ____

  • neurons (soma) in ______; ____ reach down as hypothalamo–hypophyseal tract, end in _____
  • hypothalamic neurons secrete ____; stored in ______ until released into ____
A

Pituitary: Anatomy

• NEUROHYPOPHYSIS constitutes posterior ¼ of pituitary

– three parts (MEDIAN eminence, infundibulum, POSTERIOR lobe (pars nervosa)

– NERVOUS tissue! not a true GLAND

  • neurons (soma) in HYPOTHALAMUS; AXONS reach down as hypothalamo–hypophyseal tract, end in POSTERIOR LOBE
  • hypothalamic neurons secrete HORMONES; stored in NEUROHYPOPHYSIS until released into BLOOD
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14
Q

Hypothalamic Hormones

• ___ hormones produced in HT

– 6 regulate ___ pituitary

– 2 released into ___ pituitary when hypothalamic neurons stimulated (____ & _______ -ADH)

• 6 releasing & inhibiting hormones stimulate or inhibit ____ pituitary

– ___, ___, ___, ___ = releasing hormones affect ____ pituitary secretion of TSH, PRL, ACTH, FSH, LH, & GH

– PIH inhibits secretion of ____ - somatostatin inhibits secretion ___ & ___

A

Hypothalamic Hormones

• 8 hormones produced in HT

– 6 regulate ANTERIOR pituitary

– 2 released into POSTERIOR pituitary when hypothalamic neurons stimulated (OXYTOCIN & ANTIDIURETIC HORMONE -ADH)

• 6 releasing & inhibiting hormones stimulate or inhibit ANTERIOR pituitary

– TRH, CRH, GnRH, GHRH = releasing hormones affect ANTERIOR pituitary secretion of TSH, PRL, ACTH, FSH, LH, & GH

– PIH inhibits secretion of PROLACTIN - somatostatin inhibits secretion GH & TSH

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15
Q

What are the anterior pituitary hormones?

A
  1. FSH
  2. LH
  3. TSH
  4. ACTH
  5. PRL
  6. GH
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16
Q

Anterior Pituitary Hormones

  • ____ & ____ 6 principal hormones
  • ______ hormones that target gonads

– Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) (stimulates secretion of ______ hormones, development of _______, & ____ production)

– Luteinizing hormone (LH) (stimulates ___, corpus luteum to secrete ____, ____ to secrete testosterone)

  • Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) (stimulates secretion of ____ hormone)
A

Anterior Pituitary Hormones

  • SYNETHESIZES & SECRETES 6 principal hormones
  • GONADOTROPIN hormones that target gonads

– Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) (stimulates secretion of OVARIAN SEX hormones, development of OVARIAN FOLLICLES, & SPERM production)

– Luteinizing hormone (LH) (stimulates OVULATION, corpus luteum to secrete PROGESTERONE, TESTES to secrete testosterone)

  • Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) (stimulates secretion of THYROID hormone)
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17
Q

Anterior Pituitary Hormones

  • Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) (stimulates adrenal cortex to secrete ______)
  • Prolactin (PRL) (after ___, stimulates ____ glands to synthesize ___; enhances secretion of ____ by testes)
  • Growth hormone (GH) (stimulates ____ & cellular _____)
A

Anterior Pituitary Hormones

  • Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) (stimulates adrenal cortex to secrete GLUCOCORTICOIDS)
  • Prolactin (PRL) (after BIRTH, stimulates MAMMARY glands to synthesize MILK; enhances secretion of TESTOSTERONE by testes)
  • Growth hormone (GH) (stimulates MITOSIS & cellular DIFFERENTIATION)
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18
Q

Study!!

A
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19
Q

Gets credit for hormones but really comes from hypothalamus

A
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20
Q

What are the posterior pituitary hormones?

A
  1. ADH
  2. OT
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21
Q

Posterior Pituitary Hormones

  • produced in ______
    – transported by __________ tract to posterior ____
    – releases _____ when hypothalamic ____ stimulated
A

Posterior Pituitary Hormones

  • produced in HYPOTHALAMUS
    – transported by HYPOTHALAMO-HYPOPHYSEL tract to posterior LOBE
    – releases HORMONES when hypothalamic NEURONS stimulated
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22
Q

Posterior Pituitary Hormones

  • ADH (antidiuretic hormone)

– increases ____, reduces ____ volume & prevents ___ – [also called ____ b/c can cause vasoconstriction]

  • Oxytocin (OT)

– released during ____ & ___
• ___ contractions & ___ propulsion
– promotes ____ betw/ partners – stimulates ____ during childbirth – stimulates flow of milk during ___ – promotes ___ betw/ mother & infant

A

Posterior Pituitary Hormones

  • ADH (antidiuretic hormone)

– increases WATER RETENTION, reduces URINE volume & prevents DEHYDRATION – [also called VASOPRESSIN b/c can cause vasoconstriction]

  • Oxytocin (OT)

– released during SEXUAL AROUSAL & ORGASM
• UTERINE contractions & SEMEN propulsion
– promotes EMOTIONAL BONDING betw/ partners – stimulates LABOR CONTRACTIONS during childbirth – stimulates flow of milk during LACTATION – promotes BONDING betw/ mother & infant

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23
Q

Control of Pituitary Secretion

• rates of secretion _____
– regulated by ___ & feedback from ___

• Hypothalamic & cerebral control:
1) regulation of ____ lobe
• Ex: Cold? HT stimulates ____ to release ___ —> generate body heat
Stressed? ___ —> cortisol —> tissue repair

2) regulation of posterior lobe: ____ reflexes
• hormone release in response to _____ • Ex. suckling infant —> stimulates nerve endings —> HT –> posterior lobe —> oxytocin —> milk ejection

Dehydrated?

3) higher brain centers

  • milk ejection reflex triggered by baby’s cry
  • ___ can affect menstruation, fertility, etc
A

Control of Pituitary Secretion

• rates of secretion NOT CONSTANT
– regulated by HT & feedback from TARGETS

• Hypothalamic & cerebral control:
1) regulation of ANTERIOR lobe
• Ex: Cold? HT stimulates ANTERIOR LOBE to release TSH —> generate body heat
Stressed? ACTH —> cortisol —> tissue repair

2) regulation of posterior lobe: NEUROENDOCRINE reflexes
• hormone release in response to NERVOUS SIGNALS • Ex. suckling infant —> stimulates nerve endings —> HT –> posterior lobe —> oxytocin —> milk ejection

Dehydrated?

3) higher brain centers

  • milk ejection reflex triggered by baby’s cry
  • EMOTIONAL STRESS can affect menstruation, fertility, etc
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24
Q

Control of Pituitary Secretion

  • Negative feedback—increased target hormone levels ___ further release of hormones
  • Positive feedback—stretching of uterus increases ___ release, ___ contractions, ___ stretching, etc. until delivery
A

Control of Pituitary Secretion

  • Negative feedback—increased target hormone levels INHIBIT further release of hormones
  • Positive feedback—stretching of uterus increases OT release, MORE contractions, MORE stretching, etc. until delivery
25
Q

Growth Hormone

  • Widespread effects

– mitosis in ___, ___, & ___

  • Induces ___ to produce growth ___

– Insulin-like Growth Factors (IGF-I) or somatomedins (IGF-II)
• stimulate target cells in ____

• IGF-I prolongs ______

• hormone half-life—time required for ___ of hormone to be ____
– GH half-life: ____ – IGF-I half-life: ~____

A

Growth Hormone

  • Widespread effects

– mitosis in CARTILAGE, MUSCLE, & BONE

  • Induces LIVER to produce growth STIMULANTS

– Insulin-like Growth Factors (IGF-I) or somatomedins (IGF-II)
• stimulate target cells in DIVERSE TISSUES

  • IGF-I prolongs GH ACTION
  • hormone half-life—time required for 50% of hormone to be CLEARED FROM BLOOD

– GH half-life: 6-20MIN – IGF-I half-life: ~20HRS

26
Q

Growth Hormone

  • ____ synthesis increases: boosts ____ (DNA –> ___), ___ uptake into cells, suppresses ____ catabolism
  • ___ metabolism increases: fat catabolism by ___ (protein-sparing effect), provides energy for growing ___
  • ___ metabolism: ___-sparing effect, mobilizes fatty acids, reduces dependence of cells on ___ (allows to save ___ for brain)
  • ___ balance: promotes Na+, K+, & Cl− retention by ___, enhances Ca2+ absorption in ___
  • ___ growth, ___, & ___ influenced, especially during childhood / adolescence
  • Secretion high during first 2 hrs of ___
  • Can peak in response to ___
  • Levels decline w/ ___
A

Growth Hormone

  • PROTEIN synthesis increases: boosts TRANSCRIPTION (DNA –> mRNA), AMINO ACID uptake into cells, suppresses PROTEIN catabolism
  • LIPID metabolism increases: fat catabolism by ADIPOCYTES (protein-sparing effect), provides energy for growing TISSUES
  • CARBOHYDRATE metabolism: GLUCOSE-sparing effect, mobilizes fatty acids, reduces dependence of cells on GLUCOSE (allows to save GLUCOSE for brain)
  • ELECTROLYTE balance: promotes Na+, K+, & Cl− retention by KIDNEYS, enhances Ca2+ absorption in INTESTINES
  • BONE growth, THICKENING, & REMODELING influenced, especially during childhood / adolescence
  • Secretion high during first 2 hrs of SLEEP
  • Can peak in response to VIGOROUS EXERCISE
  • Levels decline w/ AGE
27
Q

Pineal Gland

• above ___; very central

• after age 7, undergoes ___ (shrinkage)
– down 75% after ___ (tiny mass of ___ in adults)

• may synchronize ___ w/ 24-hour ___ rhythms of daylight / darkness
– synthesizes ___ from ___ at night
• fluctuates ___ w/ changes in day length

• may regulate timing of ___in humans
• ___ (___) occurs in winter of northern climates
– depression, ___, irritability, ___ craving

– 2-3 hrs of exposure to bright light / day reduces ___ levels & symptoms (___)

A

Pineal Gland

• above 3RD VENTRICLE; very central

• after age 7, undergoes INVOLUTION (shrinkage)
– down 75% after PUBERTY (tiny mass of SHRUNKEN TISSUE in adults)

• may synchronize PHYSIOLOGY w/ 24-hour CIRCADIAN rhythms of daylight / darkness
– synthesizes MELATONIN from SERATONIN at night
• fluctuates SEASONALLY w/ changes in day length

• may regulate timing of PUBERTY in humans
• SEASONAL AFFECTIVE DISORDER (SAD) occurs in winter of northern climates
– depression, SLEEPINESS, irritability, CARBOHYDRATE craving

– 2-3 hrs of exposure to bright light / day reduces MELATONIN levels & symptoms (PHOTOTHERAPY)

28
Q

Thymus

  • role in three systems: ___, ___, ___
  • bi-lobed gland in ____, superior to ___ (___ after puberty)
  • site of maturation of ___ - ___ defense
  • secretes hormones (___, ___, ___) that stimulate development of ___ organs & activate ___
A

Thymus

  • role in three systems: LYMPHATIC, IMMUNE, ENDOCRINE
  • bi-lobed gland in MEDIASTINUM, superior to HEART (INVOLUTION after puberty)
  • site of maturation of T CELLS - IMMUNE defense
  • secretes hormones (THYMOSIN, THYMULIN, THYMOPOIETIN) that stimulate development of LYMPHATIC organs & activate T-CELLS
29
Q

Thyroid Gland

• ___ endocrine gland
– ___ lobes + isthmus below ___

– dark reddish brown color b/c rich __ supply

• Thyroid follicles— ___
– contain ___-rich colloid
– follicular cells: simple ___ epithelium lines ___

• Secretes ___ (T4 for 4 ___ atoms) & triiodothyronine (T3) - converted fromT4 (increases ___ rate, __ consumption, ___ production (calorigenic effect), appetite, __ secretion, alertness, ___)
•___ (C or clear) cells secrete ___
– stimulates ___ activity – lowers ___ level

A

Thyroid Gland

• LARGEST endocrine gland
– 2 lobes + isthmus below LARYNX

– dark reddish brown color b/c rich BLOOD supply

• Thyroid follicles— SACS
– contain PROTEIN-rich colloid
– follicular cells: simple CUBOIDAL epithelium lines FOLLICLES

• Secretes THYROXINE (T4 for 4 IODINE atoms) & triiodothyronine (T3) - converted fromT4 (increases METABOLIC rate, O2 consumption, HEAT production (calorigenic effect), appetite, GH secretion, alertness, REFLEXES)
• PARAFOLLICULAR (C or clear) cells secrete CALCITONIN
– stimulates OSTEOBLAST activity – lowers BLOOD CALCIUM level

30
Q

Parathyroid Glands

• ___ glands partially embedded in ___ surface of ___

  • Secrete ___ hormone (___) – ___ blood Ca2+ levels
  • promotes synthesis of ____
  • increases ___ of Ca2+
  • ___ urinary excretion
  • increases ___ (opposite of calcitonin - pulling calcium out of blood material and putting it back into blood)
A

Parathyroid Glands

• 4 glands partially embedded in POSTERIOR surface of THYROID

  • Secrete PARATHYROID hormone (PTH) – INCREASES blood Ca2+ levels
  • promotes synthesis of CALCITRIOL
  • increases ABSORPTION of Ca2+
  • DECREASES urinary excretion
  • increases BONE RESORPTION (opposite of calcitonin - pulling calcium out of blood material and putting it back into blood)
31
Q

Adrenal Glands

  • sit on top of each ___
  • retroperitoneal (like kidney)
  • adrenal ___ & ___

know picture!!

A

Adrenal Glands

  • sit on top of each KIDNEY
  • retroperitoneal (like kidney)
  • adrenal CORTEX & MEDULLA

know picture!!

32
Q

Know name of zone, what they look like, and what they produce

A

Know name of zone, what they look like, and what they produce

33
Q

Adrenal Medulla

• ___, 10-20% of gland
• Dual nature: ___ gland & ___ ganglion of ___ system
– innervated by ___ fibers

– consists of ___ neurons: ____ cells

– release ___ (epinephrine & norepinephrine) & trace of ___ directly into ___

• Effect: longer lasting than ____

– increases ___, preps body for ___
• mobilizes high-energy ___, ___, ___, ___

• ___ & ___ boost glucose levels

• glucose-sparing effect because inhibits ____
– muscles use ___, saving glucose for ___
– increases ___, ___, blood flow to ___, ___ airflow, ___ rate

– decreases ___ & ___ production
Sounds like ___

A

Adrenal Medulla

• INNER CORE, 10-20% of gland
• Dual nature: ENDOCRINE gland & SYMPATHETIC ganglion of SYMPATHETIC NERVOUS system
– innervated by SYMPATHETHIC PREGANGLIONICIC fibers

– consists of MODIFIED SYMPATHETIC POSTGANGLIONIC neurons: CHROMAFFIN cells

– release CATECHOLAMINES (epinephrine & norepinephrine) & trace of DOPAMINE directly into BLOOD

• Effect: longer lasting than NEUROTRANSMITTERS

– increases ALERTNESS, preps body for PHYSICAL ACTIVITY
• mobilizes high-energy FUELS, LACTATE, FATTY ACIDS, GLUCOSE

• GLYCOGENOLYSIS & GLUCONEOGENESIS boost glucose levels

• glucose-sparing effect because inhibits INSULIN SECRETION
– muscles use FATTY ACIDS, saving glucose for BRAIN
– increases BLOOD PRESSURE, HEART RATE, blood flow to MUSCLES, PULMONARY airflow, METABOLIC rate

– decreases DIGESTION & URINE production
Sounds like FIGHT OR FLIGHT RESPONSE

34
Q
A
35
Q

Adrenal Cortex

  • Surrounds ___
  • Produces > 25 ___ hormones called ____ (or corticoids)
  • Secretes major steroid hormones from three layers of ___

– Zona glomerulosa (___, ___ layer)
• cells in ___
• secretes ____

– Zona fasciculata (___, ___ layer)
• cells in ___ separated by ___
• secretes ___ (& ___ steroids)

– Zona reticularis (___, ___ layer)
• cells in ___ network
• secretes ___ steroids (& ___)

A

Adrenal Cortex

  • Surrounds ADRENAL MEDULLA
  • Produces > 25 STEROID hormones called CORTICOSTEROIDS (or corticoids)
  • Secretes major steroid hormones from three layers of GLANDULAR TISSUE

– Zona glomerulosa (THIN, OUTER layer)
• cells in ROUND CLUSTERS
• secretes MINERALOCORTICOIDS (EX - ALDOSTERONE - BP REGULATION)

– Zona fasciculata (THICK, MIDDLE layer)
• cells in FASCICLES separated by CAPILLARIES
• secretes GLUCOCORTICOIDS (& SEX steroids) (EX - CORTISOL - STRESS HORMONE)

– Zona reticularis (NARROW, INNER layer)
• cells in BRANCHING network
• secretes SEX steroids (& GLUCOCORTICOIDS) (EX - ESTROGEN, PROGESTERON, TESTOSTERONE)

36
Q

Adrenal Cortex

• Mineralocorticoids—zona ___
– regulates ___
– ___ stimulates Na+ retention & K+ ___
– water retained w/ Na+ by ___, so blood ___ & blood ___ maintained

Glucocorticoids—zona ___

  • regulate ___ of glucose & other fuels
  • cortisol - stimulates ___ & ___ catabolism, ____ (glucose from ___ acids & ___ acids), release of ___ acids & ___ into blood
  • response to ___
  • helps body adapt to ___ & repair ___
  • anti-inflammatory effect becomes ___ w/ long-term use

Sex steroids—zona ____
– androgens: sets ___; imp. role in ___ male development (includes DHEA which converts to ___)
– estradiol: ___ quantity, but important after ___ for sustaining ___; fat converts ___ into ___

A

Adrenal Cortex

• Mineralocorticoids—zona GLOMERULOSA
– regulates ELECTROLYTE BALANCE
– ALDOSTERONE stimulates Na+ retention & K+ EXCRETION
– water retained w/ Na+ by OSMOSIS, so blood VOLUME & blood PRESSURE maintained

Glucocorticoids—zona FASCICULATA

  • regulate METABOLISM of glucose & other fuels
  • cortisol - stimulates FAT & PROTEIN catabolism, GLUCONEOGENESIS (glucose from AMINO acids & FATTY acids), release of FATTY acids & GLUCOSE into blood
  • response to ACTH
  • helps body adapt to STRESS & repair TISSUES
  • anti-inflammatory effect becomes IMMUNE SUPPRESSION w/ long-term use

Sex steroids—zona RETICULARIS
– androgens: sets LIBIDO; imp. role in PRENATAL male development (includes DHEA which converts to TESTOSTERONE)
– estradiol: SMALL quantity, but important after MENOPAUSE for sustaining BONE MASS; fat converts ANDROGENS into ESTROGEN

37
Q

Pancreatic Islets (what produces hormones)

  • exocrine ___ gland & endocrine ____ (pancreatic islets)
  • retroperitoneal, inferior/posterior to ___
A

Pancreatic Islets (what produces hormones)

  • exocrine DIGESTIVE gland & endocrine CELL CLUSTERS (pancreatic islets)
  • retroperitoneal, inferior/posterior to STOMACH
38
Q

Pancreatic Islets

• ___—secreted by A or alpha ( a) cells (goal is to make glucose and get it into blood)

– released betw/ ___ when ___ glucose concentration is ___

– in ___, stimulates gluconeogenesis, glycogenolysis; release of ___ into circulation - ___ blood
glucose level

– in ___ tissue, stimulates ___ catabolism, release of ___ acids

– promotes ___ acid absorption, & provides cells w/ raw material for ____

• ___ secreted by B or beta (b) cells (gets glucose out of blood and into cells to use for fuel)
– secreted ___ / ___ meal when glucose & ___ acid blood levels are ___

– stimulates cells to ___ these nutrients & ___ or ___ them; lowers ___ glucose levels
• promotes synthesis glycogen, ___, & ___

• ___ use of already-stored fuels

• brain, liver, kidneys, & RBCs absorb glucose ___ insulin, but other ___ require insulin
– insufficiency / inaction = ___

• ___ secreted by D or delta ( d) cells

– partially ___ secretion of glucagon & insulin
– prolongs ___ of nutrients

• ___ secreted by G cells
– stimulates ___ acid secretion, ___, & emptying

A

Pancreatic Islets

• GLUCAGON—secreted by A or alpha ( a) cells (goal is to make glucose and get it into blood)

– released betw/ MEALS when BLOOD glucose concentration is FALLING

– in LIVER, stimulates gluconeogenesis, glycogenolysis; release of GLUCOSE into circulation - RAISES blood glucose level

– in ADIPSOE tissue, stimulates FAT catabolism, release of FREE FATTY acids

– promotes AMINO acid absorption, & provides cells w/ raw material for GLUCONEOGENESIS

• INSULIN secreted by B or beta (b) cells (gets glucose out of blood and into cells to use for fuel)
– secreted DURING / AFTER meal when glucose & AMINO acid blood levels are RISING

– stimulates cells to ABSORB these nutrients & STORE or METABOLIZE them; lowers BLOOD glucose levels
• promotes synthesis glycogen, FAT, & PROTEIN

• SUPPRESSES use of already-stored fuels

• brain, liver, kidneys, & RBCs absorb glucose WITHOUT insulin, but other TISSUES require insulin
– insufficiency / inaction = DIABETES MELLITUS

• SOMATOSTATIN secreted by D or delta ( d) cells
– partially SUPPRESSES secretion of glucagon & insulin
– prolongs ABSORPTION of nutrients

• GASTRIN secreted by G cells
– stimulates STOMACH acid secretion, MOTILITY, & emptying

39
Q

Pancreatic Islets

•___ hormones raise blood glucose concentration
– ___, growth hormone, epinephrine, norepinephrine, ___ & corticosterone

•___ hormones lower blood glucose
– ___

A

Pancreatic Islets

• HYPERGLYCEMIC hormones raise blood glucose concentration
– GLUCAGON, growth hormone, epinephrine, norepinephrine, CORTISOL & corticosterone

• HYPOGLYCEMIC hormones lower blood glucose
– INSULIN

40
Q

Gonads

• Ovaries & testes - both ___ & ___

– exocrine product: ___ —eggs & sperm (___ glands)

– endocrine product: ___ hormones—mostly ___

• Ovarian hormones
– estradiol, ___, & ___

• Testicular hormones
– testosterone, weaker ___, estrogen, & ___

A

Gonads

• Ovaries & testes - both ENDOCRINE & EXOCRINE

– exocrine product: WHOLE CELLS —eggs & sperm (CYTOGENIC glands)

– endocrine product: GONADAL hormones—mostly STEROIDS

• Ovarian hormones
– estradiol, PROGESTERONE, & INHIBIN

• Testicular hormones
– testosterone, weaker ANDROGENS, estrogen, & INHIBIN

41
Q

Hormone Chemistry

3 chemical classes:

  1. ____
    • from ___
  • secreted by ___ & ___ glands
  • ____, progesterone, ___, cortisol, corticosterone, aldosterone, DHEA, & ____
  1. ___ & ___
    • from chains of ___ acids
    • secreted by ____ & ____

• ____, ADH, & ___ pituitary hormones

  1. ____ (biogenic amines)
    • from ___ acids
    • secreted by ___, ___, & ___ glands

• ___, norepinephrine, melatonin, & ___ hormone

All hormones made from either ___ or ___ acids w/ carbohydrate added to make ___

A

Hormone Chemistry

3 chemical classes:

  1. STEROIDS
    • from CHOLESTEROL
  • secreted by GONADS & ADRENAL glands
  • ESTROGEN, progesterone, TESTOSTERONE, cortisol, corticosterone, aldosterone, DHEA, & CALCITRIOL
  1. PEPTIDES & GLYCOPROTEINS
  • from chains of AMINO acids
  • secreted by PITUITARY & HYPOTHALAMUS

• OXYTOCIN, ADH, & ANTERIOR pituitary hormones

  1. MONOAMINES (biogenic amines)
    • from AMINO acids
    • secreted by ADRENAL, PINEAL, & THYROID glands

• EPINEPHRINE, norepinephrine, melatonin, & THYROID hormone

All hormones made from either CHOLESTEROL or AMINO acids w/ carbohydrate added to make GLYCOPROTEINS

42
Q

Hormone Transport

• Most monoamines & peptides = ___ (mix ___ w/ blood)

• Steroids & thyroid hormone = ___
– bind to ___ (albumins & globulins from ___)

– ___ hormones have longer half-life

– only ___ hormone leaves capillaries to reach ___ cell

– transport proteins ___ circulating hormones from: degradation by ___ in ___ & liver

  • filtration out of blood by ___

• ___ hormone binds to 3 transport proteins in plasma
– ___, ___, ___ (___)
– > 99% of circulating TH = ___ bound

• Steroid hormones bind to ___
– Ex. Transcortin = ___ protein for cortisol

• ___—short half-life; 85% unbound, 15% binds ___ to ___ (& others)

A

Hormone Transport

• Most monoamines & peptides = HYDROPHILLIC (mix EASILY w/ blood)

• Steroids & thyroid hormone = HYDROPHOBIC
– bind to TRANSPORT PROTEINS (albumins & globulins from LIVER)

– BOUND hormones have longer half-life

– only UNBOUND hormone leaves capillaries to reach TARGET cell

– transport proteins PROTECT circulating hormones from: degradation by ENZYMES in PLASMA & liver

  • filtration out of blood by KIDNEYS

• THYROID hormone binds to 3 transport proteins in plasma

– ALBUMIN, THYRETIN, THYROXINE-BINDING GLOBULIN (TBG)
– > 99% of circulating TH = PROTEIN bound

• Steroid hormones bind to GLOBULINA
– Ex. Transcortin = TRANSPORT protein for cortisol

• ALDOSTERONE—short half-life; 85% unbound, 15% binds WEAKLY to ALBUMIN (& others)

43
Q

Hormone Receptors & Mode of Action

• Hormones only stimulate cells w/ ___ for them

  • ___ has ~1000s receptors for given hormone
  • Receptor–hormone interactions exhibit ___ & ___

– specific ___ for each hormone

– ___ when all ___ molecules occupied by ___ molecules

• Receptors = ___/ ___ molecules
– on ___ membrane, in cytoplasm, or in ___
– act like switches, turn on ___ pathways when hormone ___

A

Hormone Receptors & Mode of Action

• Hormones only stimulate cells w/ RECEPTORS for them

  • TARGET CELL has ~1000s receptors for given hormone
  • Receptor–hormone interactions exhibit SPECIFICITY & SATURATION

– specific RECEPTOR for each hormone

– SATURATED when all RECEPTOR molecules occupied by HORMONES molecules

• Receptors = PROTEINS/ GLYCOPROTEIN molecules
– on PLASMA membrane, in cytoplasm, or in NUCLEUS
– act like switches, turn on METABOLIC pathways when hormone BINDS

44
Q

Hormone Receptors & Mode of Action

• Hydrophilic hormones
– need ___
– changes physiology thru ___

• Hydrophobic hormones
– through ___, enter ____ – act directly on ___ changing target cell ___ – ___, progesterone, ___ hormone act on ___ receptors – take several ___ to show effect (lag time for ___)

A

Hormone Receptors & Mode of Action

• Hydrophilic hormones
– need MEMBRANE RECEPTOR
– changes physiology thru SECOND MESSENGER

• Hydrophobic hormones
– through PLASMA MEMBRANE, enter NUCLEUS – act directly on GENES changing target cell PHYSIOLOGY

– ESTROGEN, progesterone, THYROID hormone act on NUCLEAR receptors – take several HOURS TO DAYS to show effect (lag time for PROTEIN SYNTHESIS)

45
Q

WILL BE ON TEST - UPDATE WITH MORE INFO

A
46
Q

Steroids & Thyroid Hormone

  • Thyroid hormones enters ____ by ____, mostly as ___ (little metabolic effect)
  • Within ___, __ converted to more potent ___
  • ___ enters ___, binds to receptors in ____
  • activates ___ (makes ___, enhancing ____ muscle response and strengthening ___)
A

Steroids & Thyroid Hormone

  • Thyroid hormones enters TARGET CELL by DIFFUSION, mostly as T4 (little metabolic effect)
  • Within TARGET CELL, T4 converted to more potent T3
  • T3 enters TARGET CELLS, binds to receptors in CHROMATIN
  • activates GENES (makes MYOSIN, enhancing CARDIAC muscle response and strengthening HEARTBEAT)
47
Q

Peptides & Catecholamines

  • hormone binds to ___ receptor
  • receptor linked to ___
  • most common:
  • activates ___ protein –> activates ___ –> produces ___
  • activates / inhibits ___
  • ___effects
A

Peptides & Catecholamines

  • hormone binds to CELL-SURFACE receptor
  • receptor linked to SECOND MESSENGER SYSTEM
  • most common:
  • activates G protein –> activates ADENYLATE CYCLASE –> produces cAMP
  • activates / inhibits ENZYMES
  • METABOLIC effects
48
Q

Enzyme Amplification (one little hormone can do a lot)

  • hormones = extraordinarily ___ chemicals!
  • one ___ molecule –> synthesis of many ___ molecules
  • ___ stimulus –> ___ effect
  • circulating concentrations very ___
A

Enzyme Amplification (one little hormone can do a lot)

  • hormones = extraordinarily POTENT chemicals!
  • one HORMONE molecule –> synthesis of many ENZYME molecules
  • SMALL stimulus –> LARGE effect
  • circulating concentrations very LOW
49
Q
A
50
Q

Hormone Interactions (know names of effects and examples that go with them)

Most cells sensitive to > one ___

Synergistic effects - ___ hormones act together for greater effect (Ex - ___ & ___ on sperm production)

Permissive effects

one hormone enhances target organ’s response to _______

Ex - ___ preps uterus for ____ (hormones paves the way)

Antagonistic effects

one hormone ___ action of another

ex) insulin and ____

A

Hormone Interactions (know names of effects and examples that go with them)

Most cells sensitive to > one HORMONE

Synergistic effects - MULTIPLE hormones act together for greater effect (Ex - FSH & TESTOSTERONE on sperm production)

Permissive effects

one hormone enhances target organ’s response to SECOND LATER HORMONE

Ex - ESTROGEN preps uterus for PROGESTERONE (hormones paves the way)

Antagonistic effects

one hormone OPPOSES action of another

ex) insulin and GLUCAGON

51
Q

Hormone Clearance

• Turning ___ hormone signals when they have served purpose

• Metabolic clearance rate (MCR)
– rate of hormone ___ from blood
– half-life: time required to clear 50% of hormone from ___

A

Hormone Clearance

• Turning OFF hormone signals when they have served purpose

• Metabolic clearance rate (MCR)
– rate of hormone REMOVAL from blood
– half-life: time required to clear 50% of hormone from BLOOD

52
Q

Stress & Adaptation

• Stress—when ___ upset; threatens ___ or ___ well-being
– injury, ____, infection, intense exercise, ___, grief, ___, anger, etc.

• General Adaptation Syndrome
– consistent way body reacts to ___; involves elevated levels of ___ & ____ (especially ___)
– occurs in 3 stages: alarm reaction, resistance, and exhaustion

A

Stress & Adaptation

• Stress—when HOMEOSTASIS upset; threatens PHYSICAL or EMOTIONAL well-being
– injury, SURGERY, infection, intense exercise, PAIN, grief, DEPRESSION, anger, etc.

• General Adaptation Syndrome
– consistent way body reacts to STRESS; involves elevated levels of EPINEPHRINE & GLUCOCORTICOIDS (especially CORTISOL)
– occurs in 3 stages: alarm reaction, resistance, and exhaustion

53
Q

Anti-Inflammatory Drugs

• Cortisol & corticosterone
– _____ (SAIDs)
– inhibit ___ by blocking ____ of arachidonic acid & inhibiting eicosanoid synthesis
• disadvantage—____ syndrome symptoms

• Aspirin, ibuprofen, & naproxen (Aleve)
– _____ (NSAIDs)
• _____: block cyclooxygenase

• useful in treatment of ___ & ___

A

Anti-Inflammatory Drugs

• Cortisol & corticosterone
– STEROIDAL ANTI-INFLAMMATORY DRUGS (SAIDs)
– inhibit INFLAMMATION by blocking RELEASE of arachidonic acid & inhibiting eicosanoid synthesis
• disadvantage—CUSHING syndrome symptoms

• Aspirin, ibuprofen, & naproxen (Aleve)
– NONSTEROIDAL ANTI-INFLAMMATORY DRUGS (NSAIDs)
• COX INHIBITORS: block cyclooxygenase

• useful in treatment of FEVER & THROMBOSIS

54
Q

Endocrine Disorders

• Hyposecretion—inadequate ___ release (gland ___ or lost ability to receive ___ from another gland)

Ex. – ___ inability to secrete ADH –> Diabetes insipidus: chronic ___ from lack of ADH

– Addison’s disease – deficiency of ___ & ____

– hypothyroidism

  • Hypersecretion—excessive ___ release (___ or ___ disorder)
  • Toxic goiter (Graves disease)—___ mimic effect of ___ on thyroid, causing thyroid ___
  • endemic goiter – lack of ___, no __; ___ in overdrive, hypertrophy of thyroid
A

Endocrine Disorders

• Hyposecretion—inadequate HORMONE release (gland DESTROYED or lost ability to receive SIGNALS from another gland)

Ex. – PITUITARY’S inability to secrete ADH –> Diabetes insipidus: chronic POLYURIA from lack of ADH

– Addison’s disease – deficiency of GLUCOCORTICOIDS & MINERALOCORTICOIDS

– hypothyroidism

  • Hypersecretion—excessive HORMONE release (TUMORS or AUTOIMMUNE disorder)
  • Toxic goiter (Graves disease)— AUTOANTIBODIESmimic effect ofTSHon thyroid, causing thyroidHYPERSECRETION
  • endemic goiter – lack of IODINE, no TH; TSH in overdrive, hypertrophy of thyroid
55
Q

Endocrine disorders

  • Pheochromocytoma—tumor of ___ secretes excessive ___ & norepinephrine
  • Cushing syndrome – excess of ___
A

Endocrine disorders

  • Pheochromocytoma—tumor of ADRENAL MEDULLA secretes excessive EPINEPHRINE & norepinephrine
  • Cushing syndrome – excess of CORTISOL
56
Q

Diabetes Mellitus

• Most prevalent metabolic disease
– disruption of metabolism due to ___ or inaction of ___

– symptoms:
• poly___, poly___ & poly___
• revealed by elevated ___; ___ & ___ in urine

• Transport maximum—limit to how fast ___ transporters can ___
– excess glucose enters ___ & ___ follows it!
• dehydration

A

Diabetes Mellitus

• Most prevalent metabolic disease
– disruption of metabolism due to HYPOSECRETION or inaction of INSULIN

– symptoms:
• polyURIA, polyDIPSIA & polyPHAGIA
• revealed by elevated BLOOD GLUCOSE; GLUCOSE & KETONES in urine

• Transport maximum—limit to how fast GLUCOSE transporters can REABSORB
– excess glucose enters URINE & WATER follows it!
• dehydration

57
Q

Types of Diabetes Mellitus & Treatment

• Type 1 (IDDM)—5-10% of US cases – problem: insulin ____

___ used to treat
• injections, pump, or dry inhaler
• monitoring ___ levels & controlling ___

– hereditary susceptibility if infected w/ certain viruses (rubella, cytomegalovirus)

– ___ attack & destroy pancreatic ___ cells

• Type 2 (NIDDM)—90-95% of diabetics
– problem: insulin ___
• failed response of ____ to insulin

– risk factors: heredity, age (40+), ___, ___ – treated w/ weight-loss program & exercise since:
• loss of ____ causes difficulty w/ regulation of ___

• ___ signals interfere w/ glucose uptake into most cells

– oral medications improve insulin ___ or target cell ___

A

Types of Diabetes Mellitus & Treatment

• Type 1 (IDDM)—5-10% of US cases – problem: insulin INSUFFICIENCY

INSULIN used to treat
• injections, pump, or dry inhaler
• monitoring BLOOD GLUCOSE levels & controlling DIET

– hereditary susceptibility if infected w/ certain viruses (rubella, cytomegalovirus)

– AUTOANTIBODIES attack & destroy pancreatic BETA cells

• Type 2 (NIDDM)—90-95% of diabetics
– problem: insulin RESISTANCE
• failed response of TARGET CELLS to insulin

– risk factors: heredity, age (40+), OBESITY, ETHNICITY – treated w/ weight-loss program & exercise since:
• loss of MUSCLE MASS causes difficulty w/ regulation of GLYCEMIA

• ADIPOSE signals interfere w/ glucose uptake into most cells

– oral medications improve insulin SECRETION or target cell SENSITIVITY

58
Q

Pathogenesis

• Cells cannot absorb ___; rely on ___ & ___ for energy, thus weight loss & ___
– fat catabolism increases ___ & ___ in blood

  • Ketonuria promotes ___, loss of Na+ & K+, irregular ___, & ___ issues
  • Ketoacidosis - ketones decrease ___ (diabetic coma)
A

Pathogenesis

• Cells cannot absorb GLUCOSE; rely on FAT & PROTEIN for energy, thus weight loss & WEAKNESS
– fat catabolism increases FREE FATTY ACIDS & KETONES in blood

  • Ketonuria promotes OSMOTIC DIURESIS, loss of Na+ & K+, irregular HEARTBEAT, & NEUROLOGICAL issues
  • Ketoacidosis - ketones decrease BLOOD pH (diabetic coma)
59
Q

Pathogenesis
• Chronic pathology (chronic hyperglycemia)
– ___ & ___ damage

  • Diabetic neuropathy— ___ damage from poor blood flow can lead to erectile disfunction, ___, poor ___ healing, loss of ___
  • arterial damage in ___ & ___ (common in type 1)
  • atherosclerosis leads to ___ (common in type 2)
A

Pathogenesis
• Chronic pathology (chronic hyperglycemia)
– NEUROPATHY & CARDIOVASCULAR damage

  • Diabetic neuropathy— NERVE damage from poor blood flow can lead to erectile disfunction, INCONTINENCE, poor WOUND healing, loss of SENSATION
  • arterial damage in RETINA & KIDNEYS (common in type 1)
  • atherosclerosis leads to HEART FAILURE (common in type 2)

Anatomy and Physiology II (8 decks)

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