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Urbanisation Flashcards

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1
Q

What is urbanisation?

A

Growth in the percentage of a country’s population living in urban compared to rural areas

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2
Q

What are push and pull factors resulting in urbanisation?

A

Push factors:
- poor housing
- lower wages
- lack of services

Pull factors:
- better healthcare
- better education
- higher employment opportunity
- more developed public transport

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3
Q

What are the positive and negative effects of urbanisation?

A

Positive:
- more stable economy
- more diversity - international migrants
- increased sustainability

Negative:
- air pollution leading to global warming
- traffic congestion
- stretched services eg. healthcare/education
- reduced spending in rural areas

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4
Q

How has the global distribution of megacities changed and why?

A

HICs and NEEs - more development in newly emerging economies

A decline in the USA

West -> East - global shift due to manufacturing industries moving more Eastwards

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5
Q

How does the rate of urbanisation link to economic development?

A

In some areas eg. Asia the rate of urbanisation is rapid. In developing nations it can cause many problems including inadequate infrastructure (housing, water supply, sewerage etc.) and a lack of employment. This rapid growth outstrips the resources of urban authorities to provide basic needs to millions which can result in large scale poverty. There is also growing income inequality and world cities suffer with problems of pollution, unemployment and housing shortages.

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6
Q

How are world cities important globally?

A
  • headquarters of multinational corporations
  • have considerable decision-making power
  • major manufacturing centres with port and container facilities
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7
Q

How are world cities important regionally?

A
  • domination of the trade and economy of a large surrounding area
  • multi-functional infrastructure offering some of the best legal, medical and entertainment facilities in the country
  • high quality educational institutions including renowned universities, international attendance and research facilities
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8
Q

How are world cities important nationally?

A
  • high proportion of residents employed in the services information sector
  • multi-functional infrastructure offering some of the best legal, medical and entertainment facilities in the country
  • high quality educational institutions including renowned universities, international attendance and research facilities
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9
Q

What is suburbanisation and what are the effects and causes?

A

the growth of urban areas spreading to the fringes of the city and movement away from the centre (decentralisation)

Effects:
- more traffic due to commuters
- less investment in the inner city- political disputes
- rise of businesses in suburban areas
- habitat loss
- expensive to provide more services
- increased social segregation

Causes:
- growth of public transport systems and increased use of private cars which allowed people to commute
- more land in fringes for car parking and land for gardens
- desire for a less polluted, congested and quieter environment

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10
Q

What is counter-urbanisation and what are the effects and causes?

A

The movement of people away from large towns or cities into smaller rural settlements beyond the city

Effects:
- tensions between locals and newcomers
- increased house price values
- increase in use of commuter transport
- gentrification
- construction of more executive housing

Causes:
- cheaper land and house prices
- a want to escape air pollution, dirt and crime of urban areas
- car ownership and greater affluence allowed people to commute
- improvements in technology eg. high speed internet access in rural areas
- rise in demand for second homes
- slow in agricultural businesses - farmers sell land cheaply

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11
Q

What is urban resurgence and what are the effects and causes?

A

Development of an urban area after a period of decline - gentrification

Effects:
- inward migration back to the city
- increased pollution within cities
- greater demand for services and infrastructure
- people displaced due to rising house prices
- attracts investment
- increasing inequality between rich and poor

Causes:
- de-industrialisation
- globalisation and technological change facilitate resurgence
- major sporting events eg. olympics encourage movement back to city

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12
Q

what urban processes occurred in London in early 1900’s and why?

what were the effects?

A

Urbanisation

  • 6.5 million population in inner London
  • 77% UK urbanised by 1901
  • major world city due to deindustrialisation

push factors:
- low paid jobs
- growth of secondary manufacturing industry
- improvements in transport

effects:
- crowded inner city, densely stacked terraced housing - spread of disease
- areas of deprivation eg. Tower Hamlets
- no green space - heavily polluted
- rise in service jobs to support rise in population
- London grew as a trading port city due to location on river Thames

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13
Q

what urban processes occurred in London between 1930-50 and why?

what were the effects?

A

Suburbanisation and urban sprawl

  • between 1891 and 1931, the population of outer London tripled to over 3 million

push factors:
- improved transport links - roads and trains (commuters)
- heavily polluted inner city
- inner city targeted as bomb sites
- high crime rates

effects:
- social segregation - wealthy lived in suburbs, poor lived in inner city
- investment went to suburbs rather than inner city
- less wealth in inner city - closure of businesses
- youthful population in suburbs, ageing population in inner city

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14
Q

facts about suburbanisation in LONDON (Ealing)

A
  • first steam underground built in 1863 from Paddington to Farringdon street - 10 million passengers in first year
  • railway companies began introducing workmen’s fares in 1860’s - cheap return tickets to inner city from suburbs so areas like Enfield and Ealing began to develop
  • London tube in 1890 - first electric underground railway in the world
  • world famous film studios in Ealing 1930-40’s, QPR established in 1880’s, West Middlesex Golf Club
  • rundown inner city areas eg. Tower Hamlets - densely crowded, stacked housing, smog from industrial revolution, bomb-sites
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15
Q

facts about counter-urbanisation in LONDON (St Albans)

A
  • within the London commuter belt (21% population work in London)
  • M1 motorway and 2 railway stations - London is easily accessible
  • high achieving state and independent schools eg. St Albans Independent Boys
  • average house price of £580,000 in 2019
  • 90% white population
  • unemployment rate is 1% compared to 4% nationally
  • 20% of population are 65+ compared to 15% nationally - ageing population
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16
Q

what are the pros and cons of counter-urbanisation in St Albans?

A

Pros:

  • rural services eg. Batchwood golf club see an increase in demand and profit
  • landowners sell at higher prices - more revenue for local council

Cons:

  • increased house prices (£580,000 average) - locals cannot afford to buy homes
  • too many houses will destroy character of village and historical buildings eg. The clock tower
  • increased traffic congestion on rural roads eg. North Orbital Road towards London
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17
Q

why did London begin to decline?

A
  • closure of docks, ships were too small to fit into docks - containerisation and unemployment
  • mass riots due to unemployment - higher crime rates and increased poverty
  • migrants blamed for unemployment after filling in jobs for people who died during WWII, race riots
  • global recession - oil crisis in 1970’s
  • closure of factories - deindustrialisation
  • cheap and poorly designed buildings began to rot, lasted only 5-6 years
  • foreign competition during globalisation meant that jobs moved abroad
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18
Q

what is urban decline?

A

the deterioration of the inner city often caused by lack of investment and maintenance, often accompanied by a decline in population, decreasing economic performance and unemployment

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19
Q

facts about urban resurgence in LONDON

A
  • more than 300 languages spoken by people of London - international migrants move for education and well paid highly skilled jobs
  • renovated housing and gentrification of buildings in Mayfair
  • famous attractions: west end, London museum, national gallery
  • expensive apartments constructed along River Thames stimulates local economy in services- movement back into areas like Chelsea
  • Sudiq Khan - mayor of London 1999, brought voice and power
  • facilitating factor: transport improvements, sustainable + integrated eg. Boris bikes, cross rail improvements to underground
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20
Q

why did urban resurgence occur in London?

A
  • government policies eg. LDDC
  • gentrification stimulated by private investment from property developers (areas eg. Notting Hill up and coming areas, previously scene of riots)
  • revival of culture eg. West end in Covent Gardens
  • Canary Wharf built on top of old docks - quaternary industry, high paid knowledge-based jobs in finance, insurance etc.
  • olympics in 2012 - investment by government
  • improvements in transport eg. London underground and environment eg. congestion charge, Boris bikes
  • movement of businesses and industry into city centre (TNC’s eg, HSBC, KPMG)
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21
Q

what are the positive and negative impacts of urban resurgence on a city centre?

A

positives:
-new shops and services open - jobs are created so less unemployment
- tourism increases which brings in disposable income - improve area
- investment from government

negatives:
- original residents may be unable to afford housing and be displaced
- tension between original and new residents eg. jobs in new businesses may not be accessible to semi-skilled original residents

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22
Q

what is decentralisation and what are the implications?

A

movement of shops, offices and industry away from urban centres into retail and business parks in the suburbs mainly due to high land and labour costs

implications:
- less jobs (unemployment) in city centre
- political disputes eg. more funding towards outskirts than inner city
- increased demand on services in rural areas
- increasing building prices in suburbs

23
Q

what is deindustrialisation?

why has it occurred in the UK?

A

the process of social and economic change caused by removal or reduction of industrial capacity or activity in a country

  • moving away from manufacturing industry into tertiary and quaternary industries
  • rise of technology - mechanisation
  • end of industrial revolution
24
Q

what political issues was the UK facing in 1970’s?

which parties were in charge?

A

1973 - oil crisis - global economic depression and recession

1978 - inflation due to oil and politics - lorry driver strikes

1978-79 - winter of discontent (strikes protesting against labour)

early 1970’s run by labour - focused on socialism, supporting people on lower wages, rights of workers, investment in council housing

Margaret thatcher elected in 1979 (conservative) - focused on economy and rise of the service sector, work harder earn more money, free market approach

25
Q

what were the urban policies in 1980’s?

A

UDC (urban development corporations) - ‘property led’ initiative eg. moving away from factories towards building offices. Wanted to spend money to attract private investment and create jobs for unemployed.

  • mid 1990’s over £12 billion private investment and 190,000 jobs created
26
Q

why was regeneration needed in LDDC? (UDC)

A
  • decentralisation because people moved away to find cheaper housing, jobs due to unemployment and in search of a better QOL
  • deindustrialisation led to disinvestment and loss of businesses - poverty and unemployment in centre
  • poor housing and wasteland left from the Blitz
  • derelict and abandoned factories
27
Q

what were the aims of the LDDC?

A
  • tackle widespread bomb damage after WWII
  • attract private investment
  • build affordable homes
  • build enterprise zones to attract businesses
  • create training schemes for locals to equip them with skills for jobs
28
Q

what were some of the projects of the LDDC?

A
  • £3700 million invested in Canary Wharf to construct 24 ‘super scale’ office buildings with 12 million square feet of floor space and room for 50,000 people
  • £2 billion investment in shopping centre in royal docks, 7000 new homes and a business hi-tech park
  • Docklands light railway (DLR) opened in 1987 at a cost of £73 million to connect royal docks to city centre
  • enterprise zone set up in 1982 in the isle of dogs, attracts new business
  • 23,000 new homes built in eg. Beckton and Wapping
29
Q

what were the successes and failures of the LDDC?

A

successes:
- attracted private investment from successful global business headquarters eg. KPMG, Natwest
- improvements in transport links, 113 new roads, 29 railways built
- private housing increased by 38% - wealthier population
- derelict land decreased by 80% - regeneration

failures:
- decreased council housing - locals were displaced
- large businesses squeezed out local businesses, employing few locals
- new type of social segregation between yuppies and dinkies
- lack of integrated planning, disappointing new urban landscape

30
Q

what were the urban policies in 2000’s?

A

NDC (new deal for communities)
(labour policies)
- community at ‘heart’ of regeneration, 10 year programme to transform deprived areas eg. improvements in education, homelessness, physical environment, housing

31
Q

why was regeneration needed in the olympic park regeneration?

A

areas hosting olympics eg. Stratford and Tower Hamlets were in dire need of regeneration

  • old and abandoned industrial sites
  • low achievements in schools with GCSE points
  • higher than average unemployment
  • higher than average deprivation and poverty
  • lower than average household income
32
Q

what were the social impacts of the OPR project?

A

positive:
- athletes village relaunched as a housing estate, 40% affordable homes
- new school (Chobham academy) opened in grounds of the park
- aquatics centre now uses pools as facilities for schools and communities
- unemployment OVERALL fell

negatives:
- ‘affordable’ rents were unaffordable for Newham’s poorest households
- very few jobs created for locals, high levels of unemployment in borough
- many people surrounding the olympic park remain in poverty
- 450 housing association flats for poorer people were demolished to make way for the site

33
Q

what were the economic impacts of the OPR project?

A

positives:
- Stratford is the second most connected part of London
- brought more than £9 billion investment to east London
- ALL olympic venues have been sold, eg. olympic stadium is home to West Ham FC

negatives:
-stadium cost £701 million, 3x the original estimate
- £8.77 billion taxpayers money
- increase in rent and property prices

34
Q

what were the environmental impacts of the OPR project?

A

positives:
- stadiums made from 25% recycled materials
- built on 560 acres brownfield sites
- 4000 trees planted

negatives:
- 4000 newts and 100 toads had to be relocated
- games produced 3.3 million tonnes CO2 - many materials came from overseas

35
Q

what is urban form?

A

used to describe a city characteristics, refers to the size, shape and configuration of an urban area.

characteristics of urban form:
- built environment
- layout
- infrastructure
- environmental quality
- technology

eg. at a confluence of rivers, infrastructure will be different - flood defences, bridges, development of 2 cities etc.

youthful population, different infrastructure eg. universities, schools, youth clubs etc.

36
Q

what factors effect urban form in London?

A
  • development of the M25 has allowed the growth of settlements such as Watford as high-tech industries, almost like edge cities
  • east London is poor compared to the west, in the past the east was more marshy and likely to flood and smog from industry was blown eastwards
  • built on the floodplain of the river thames, risk of flooding necessitated construction of flood protection infrastructure eg. Thames Barrier
  • developed as a port as the thames is tidal, led to growth of inner city areas eg. Tower Hamlets
  • River Lea is a major tributary of the Thames, development of a ‘green and blue corridor’ running from north to city centre
37
Q

what is ethnic diversity like in London?

A
  • large American immigrant group live in least deprived decile around Camden/Fulham
  • new concentrations of Bulgarians and Polish residents eg. Haringey since home states joined the EU
  • 27% Bangladeshi in inner East London (tower hamlets), most deprived decile
  • small population of Americans in close proximity to financial districts eg. Canary Wharf, relatively wealthy, skilled
38
Q

why are cities so culturally diverse?

A
  • cities offer a greater range of employment opportunity
  • cities are the first point into the country for many immigrants
  • established diversity leads to ethnic shops/religious centres eg. mosques
  • same ethnic groups cluster together
39
Q

what are the effects of cultural diversity within cities?

A
  • extra pressure on urban services
  • local authorities must provide English lessons to non-speakers
  • schools may need to alter holiday patterns/curriculums
  • wealthy immigrants increase house prices that exceed reach of wealthy British people
40
Q

what factors effect spatial patterns of ethnic groups?

A
  • protection against racial abuse
  • maintenance of culture, languages and traditions
  • source of cheap labour - forced into cheap housing
  • seek support and security within ethnic community
  • minority move in, majority move out ‘white flight’
41
Q

how are poverty and inequality tackled in cities?

A
  • supporting low-skilled workers who want to develop their abilities - giving them skills + opportunities needed to enter the workforce
  • greater provision of public transport - affordable schemes
  • provision of schools - education beyond primary school
42
Q

what are town centre mixed developments?

A

blended development between residential, commercial, cultural and industrial which can be safely and easily accessed by pedestrians

eg. The Rock, Bury - shopping, leisure areas (bowling, cinema), commercial areas (restaurants, bars), and residential areas (high-rise flats)

43
Q

what are cultural and heritage quarters?

A

cultural quarters encouraging growth and to revitalise the local economy in arts and creative industries

eg. Covent Gardens - well developed theatre culture, Royal opera house, art gallery, London transport museum create a vibrant cultural scene

44
Q

what are fortress developments?

A

defensible spaces to create ‘fortress’ cities to create strong boundaries through eg. security guards, gated residential areas

eg. The Trafford Centre - private security guards, mosquito alarms, mostly rich people willing to travel further to visit

45
Q

what are edge cities?

A

decentralisation of city - suburbs mature into centres with city-like qualities characterised by mixed office, leisure and residential spaces and often near major transport links eg. motorways

eg. los angeles, heart of the city is dead, suburbs have social areas, restaurants, bars and leisure facilities as well as shopping areas, characterised like a city centre

46
Q

what are the policies to address inequality and diversity in London?

A
  • olympic regeneration in Newham - provides additional social housing, leisure facilities, greater investment in education
  • every child programme in Newham - offers children the chance to learn a musical instrument or take part in cultural events
  • workplace scheme in Newham - provides residents with free advice about employment options and training, since 2007 has supported over 20,000 residents and helped more than 900 businesses fill vacancies
47
Q

what is gentrification?

A

a shift in urban community towards wealthier residents and businesses, and increasing property prices. Typically as a result of investment in an area by local government.

eg. Notting Hill - run down, high crime rates and riots. Property developers moved in, now has a rebuilt community, Notting hill carnival

48
Q

what are the features of postmodern western cities?

A
  • architecture - buildings with symbolic shape/meaning
  • culture and ethnicity - more diverse but more polarised, fragmented
  • economy - quaternary, globalised, often home to TNC’s
  • global influence
  • urban form - fortress developments/edge cities
49
Q

what are postmodern western cities?

A

urban forms associated with changes in urban structure, architectural design and planning and reflects the changed social and economic conditions of the late 20th century

50
Q

How is Las Vegas an example of a postmodern western city?

A
  • post-suburban development (The Strip), 10,000+ visitors per day
  • dominated by tertiary (tourism) sector, entertainment and casinos
  • mixed-use city centre development
  • historical eg. Mob Museum
51
Q

Sustainability definition

A

Meeting the needs of todays society without compromising the ability for future generations to meet their needs

52
Q

What are the 4 dimensions of sustainability?

A
  • social development

eg. adequate facilities of schools, clean water, green transport, recreational areas and community support

  • economic development

eg. employment opportunity, renewable energy

  • environmental management

eg. recycling, waste and water management, energy efficient, mitigation to climate change

  • urban governance

eg. reduced inequality strategies, support global links, green urban planning

53
Q

Example of sustainability in London (BedZED)

A
  • rainwater collected and reused
  • reduced carbon emissions by 50%
  • 77% lower use of energy for heating and 45% lower use of electricity usage compared to local average
  • 60% recycling rates
  • 58% reduced water consumption
54
Q

Define liveability

A

The degree to which a place is good for living, referring to concerns related to long-term wellbeing of individuals and communities

encompasses:

  • economic factors eg. cost of housing, job availability
  • environmental factors eg. environmental quality, parks, open space
  • social and political factors eg. availability of public transport, healthcare and education facilities

Human geography (6 decks)

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