urban landscape 1

Question 1

Urban Landscape

Answer 1

• Urban areas are full of life byt typified by distubrbance
  ○ Disturbance is an event in time that disurpts the ecosystem, community or population structure and changes resoruces, susyrate availbility or physical envrinment
  
  • Human propogated plant monocultures are disurpted by adventitious or resilient pioneer species
    ○ Pioneer species are thriving in barren or recently distrubed spaces
  • Pollution, human contact, phsycoal barriers like pavment all make up unique challenges of urban living
  • Some animals have thrived in the urban landscape even tho they are found in other places
    We now look at how these animals eveolved to adapt to these envrinments even tho they have to deal with all types of pollution, temps etc

Question 2

The city as an island

Answer 2

• Cities have largely replaced vegetation
  
  • Concrete and asphalt readily absorb heat and radiate warmth long after the sun has gone down
    ○ Combustion, indoor heating radiation also creates heat within large cities
  • Cities are often 10-15 degrees warmer than rural surroundings
  • Urban heat islands create unique settings for the organisms within
  • Air pollution promotes signifcantly more rain within cities
    ○ Bc the degree of paved ground, signifant run off occurs from cities requring extensive rain water drainage systems and ponds
  • In rural areas theres greater cooling from evaporation and plant transpiration whichc ant be found in the cities
    Water cnt be absorbed into the earth by concenrte unlike vegeation areas

Question 3

Urban landscape habitats and resposnes

Answer 3

• Animals and plants in the urban landscape encounter diverse microhabitats
  
  • These may be natural or human made
  • These landscapes both take in additional nutrients, and lose greater amounts of nutrients than surrounding rural areas
  • The four broad categories of the habitats are:
    ○ Built habitats are structured primarly by human constructin
    ○ Waste habitats have been largely replaced with human discards
    ○ Green habiatts are covered by plants mostly
    ○ Aquatic habitats are covered mostly by water
  • Some organisms persist by adpating to these extreem conditions, a few organisms exploit them and become widespread and many organisms cannot tolerate them and must avoid cities
  • Three responses toc challenges or urban life:
    ○ Avoid cities
    § Like wolves
    ○ Adapt to the density:
    § Racoons, red fox
    ○ Exploit:
    § Thrive in the city and some can be non native and they get to a high density and benefit by being close to humans
    Pigeon rat

Question 4

Organisms of the landscape

Answer 4

• Desirable plants- trees, grass, ornamental flowers
  
  • Less desribale - “weeds”
  • Lichens
  • Worms
  • Insects
    ○ Flies/maggots
    ○ Mosquitos
    ○ Ants
    ○ Cockroachs
    ○ Bed bugs
  • Spiders and ticks
  • Mammals
  • Birds

Question 5

Desirable and undesirbale

Answer 5

• Desirable plants - trees, grass, ornamental flowers
  
  • Less desirbale weeds
    ○ Plants cannt move and must grow from seed
    ○ Succesful species must grow quickly from seed, tolerate high nutrient levels and toxic contaminents
    ○ The most succesful rely on wind or human distribution for their seeds
    ○ Many are angiosperms - seed plants that bear fruits - bc we plant tehse including grass
    Some species like elss derisble ones can be rlly succesful bc huamns and animals carry them and then they thrive as pioneer species

Question 6

Lichens

Answer 6

○ A polyphyletic group
○ Lichens are composite organisms, symbiosies of fungi and yeast (mycobionts) and cyanobacteria or green algae (phycobionts); they clearly do not fit into standard monophyletic classfication schemes
○ They grow in symbosiis with those photosynethci organisms and they harvest nutreints from the photosyntehsis
○ Lichen is a good thing to see bc it means tehre isnt much pollution
○ There is crustose, foliose (leaf like) and fruticose (with stalks)
○ Not monophyletic groupings bc the fungi and algae cells they don’t live independtly it’s a symbiotic asscoiation
○ Lichens are found anywhere - they breka down and wether rocks
○ Lichens are ubiqitous and often grow in extreme habitats (bare rocks artic and alpine slopes); some photosyntehsize at -18 degrees and survive -198 degrees; lichens survive extreem water stress
○ Lichens are sensitve to pollution in cities and acid rain
○ Lichens are slow growing
These organism are indctaors in the urban landscape of good air quality

Question 7

Worms

Answer 7

○ Phylum annelida
○ Segmented round worms
○ Bilateral symmetry
○ Many diverse annelids live in ocean
○ On land there are few major types but includes earthworms
○ Earthworms belong to class clitellata
§ All share clitellum, involved in reproduction
§ Include earthwroms and relatives the leches
§ Most found in freshwater or terrestrial (moist)
§ Marine and parasitic forms as well
○ Why do worms come up in the rain?
§ Worms are sensitive to aniamls, moving to the surface purposefully - they can feel the vibrations of u coming near and come back into their burrow
§ Movement:
□ The sgemented body allows complex movements along the body
□ They can contract circular msucles and the segmented become elongated and skinny
□ They can contract the longitudinal muscles and the segments become short and wide which helps anchor the body
□ Metamerism allos great complexity - indepent movement of each segmeent, needs more complex nervous system and if one segement is injured the animal can still function - metamerism also occurs in arthorpods
□ The segements are called metameres or somites
□ They move by alnternatiing which part is contracting
□ Setae are found in annelids and aid in moevemnt - they extend from pores in cuticle - act as anchors in earthworms - moved by msucles - 4 pairs per sgement - helps to anchro body and facilitate moveemnt
§ Feeding:
□ They are scavenegers, eating mostly decaying organisms
□ Mouth at anterior end
□ Soil consumed as they move
□ Large amounts fo waste produced - complete gut
□ Contirbute to mixng and aerating soil
□ Food for birds, amphibains and many mammals
§ Respiration:
□ No specialized organs for respiration
□ Moist skin allows passive trasnfer of gases across body covering to blood
□ Hemoglobin in blood carries oxygen, carbon diozide released
□ Circulatory system is present to allow gas exchange throughout the body
□ They like it to be moist so rain doesn’t matteyr
§ Mating and reproduction:
□ They leave their burrow for this
□ Earthworm reproduction is sexual
□ Direct development - no metamorphosis
□ Juveniles resemble adults but smaller
□ Clitellum - ring of secretory cells - derived character shared by clitellates - secretes mucous to join pair
□ Earthworms are hemaprodites an both membrers of the pair swap gametes
□ Eggs are laid into soil, mucus forms a coccoon
§ The reason why they are onc ocneret is to mate but also bc on conceret they lose the ability to tell hwere they are - they become disorientated
§ What earthworm do in nature?
□ Intestines of the soil
□ Imprtant in the breakdown of organic matter, mixing of soils
□ Sign of healthy soils
Important as food sourve for birds, snakes, mammals, invertebrates etc

Question 8

Arthropods

Answer 8

ontains 5 distinct subphyla
§ Crustacea and hexapoda form the clade pancrustacea
§ Myriapoda: centipedes
§ Chelicerata: spiders
§ Trilobita: extinct
§ Crustacea: lobster
§ Hexapoda: insects
○ Arthrpod exoskeleton:
§ Thin epictucile - waxy testure no chitin
§ Multiple layers of procuticle:
□ Made of chitin bound with protein
□ Lightweight and felxible
□ Proetcts against dehydration
§ Before molting the exocuticle is produced
□ Exocutivle is waxy and prevents those who leave humid areas from drying out
§ Epidermis - secretes cuticle
§ At the jointed areas, the cuticle is very thin to allow movement
Over the entire body, exoskelton is mde up of plates joined by flexible hinges

Question 9

Class insecta

Answer 9

part of subphyla hexapods (doesnt include spiders or ticks)
§ Body made up of three sections: head thorax and abdomen
§ Most have two pairs of wings on thorax
§ Includes bees, beeetles, grasshoppers etc. - not spiders
§ There are more species of insects than all other animals combines
§ Play integral roles in the envrinment, imprtant medical and econimic roles in human life
§ They are found everywhere but open ocean
§ Abudant in frshwater, soil, forests and even deserts and wastelands
§ Larval and nymph stages can be common in water
§ One key to wide dirtbution was mobility and flight
§ Flight:
□ Insect wings are outgrowths of cuticle from the thorax
□ Not homologpus to bird or flying mammal wings
□ Most insects have two pairs of wings (true flies have 1)
□ Wings can be used for flight (thin and delicate) or modified for protection (thick and horned)
§ Feeding:
□ Most insects feed on plant fluids or tissues (herbivourous)
□ Many beetles and sinsect larvae feed on dead animals
□ Some insects catch live prey (predaceous)
□ Many insects are parasitic at some point in their life cycle
□ Many wasps are parasites that always kills their host; a parasitoid
□ Others are general pests that tarsnmit diseases, dmaage strcutrues, destory argiculture
□ Their mouth parts are variable and show adaption to life cycle
§ Nervous System and Sense organs:
□ Many nevrous sense organs make insect exceptionally snesitve to thir nevirnments
□ Most obivosu are antennae used for sensing tocuh, taste, sound
□ Toch, pressure, vibration etc
® Single hair like satae
® May use more complex organs
® Common on antennae, legs body
□ Hearing
® Senstive sate detct airborne sounds
® Organs on legs detect vibrtaions on surface/susbstrate
□ Taste and smell
® Bundles of snesory cells in sensory pits
® These are located on mouthparts, antennae, legs
® Important for feeding, mating, host parasite relationships
□ Sight
® Two types of insect eyes: simple and componud
® Simpel eyes have single lens - for detecting light
® Compound eyes have many lenses - stitch togetehr image
◊ Single unit if ommatildia
◊ Each works like separate tiny eye containg pigemnts
◊ Eye sees in all direction simulatnesly but image is fuzzy
◊ Cornaea, trsparnet cuticle covers eye
□ Reproduction:
® Sexual reprodyction is norm
® Sexes are separate
® Attarcting mates is imprtant and can ivolve smelly pheremones, flashy bioluminscence, loud calls or seductive corutship moveemnts
® Fertlziation occurs internally
® Females may mate only ocnce and store sperm to fertlzie eggs for remainder of their lives or may mate with multipel males
® Metamorphasis allows dveeloping insects to grow in size or use new resources
◊ Envrinemtal cues causes chnages to production of hormones that control molting
® Jeavaniles are adapted to sit and not be movile until they get wings
□ Reproduction Diapause:
® Annual dormancy period
® Part of life cycle
® Winter - hibernation
® Summer -estivation
® Any life stage may stay dormant to survive adverse conditions
® Trigegred by envrimental cues (day lengths etc.)
® Always occurs at end of active growth stage
Isnect is then redy for next molt

Question 10

Class insecta diveristy

Answer 10

§ Insect orders are key for recognzable leevls of diversity
§ Relatevly straightforard to classify insects to at leas their order

Question 11

Order cleoptera

Answer 11

§ Beetles
□ Forewings are tough, armoured elytra (hardhsell)
□ Larvae may live on land or are aquatic
□ Beetles are most speciocse and diverse type of animals
□ Large chewing mouthparts for general feeding and hervivory and predation
□ Fed upon by many other animals
□ Some psecies are flower pollinators
□ Some are pests of crops plants and trees

Question 12

Order leopidoptera

Answer 12

§ Butterlfys and moths
§ Wings in scales
§ Mouthparts are tubes to drinking and sucking nectar
§ Caterpilars (larvae) with chewng mouthparts, silk glands for making cocoon
Imprtant pollinators and food for insectivores

Question 13

Order hymenoprta

Answer 13

§ Ants, bees, wasps
§ Pair of narrow wings may be small
§ Mouthparts (mandibles) for chewing or lapping liquids
§ Ovipoitor sometims specilzied as stinger
§ Larvae are mostly leggless, blind, maggot lik
Often live in eusocial community (queen and sisters or male reproducers)
§ Bees are rpesent as pollinators
§ Wasps are predators and can help maintain biodiversity of other species
§ Ants are high in the urban landscape - natural native organism that have thrived and have rpfound impacts
§ Ants have diverse ecological roles:
□ Seed dispersal - pick and move them into colonies, burrows, cracks etc - moev like heracious plant seeds etc
□ Soil services - stability, aeroation, movement of nutrients - all can haopen underneath stones or pavement
□ Scavenging - 30-60% of food waste is removed by ants by their scavenging - ants are also a competitor for this food when it comes to cockroaches
Pest control - many ants will feed on the pest insects - they can outcompete them and predate on other pest insects

Question 14

complete metamorphsisi

Answer 14

○ Many of the most common insects have this type of life cycle called the holometabolism or complete metamorphiss
§ Goes from egg, to larval stage, to pupa, to adult
§ The larval stage doesn’t have legs or a head - its much diff than the adult stage
Ants are like this, flies are like this, moths and butterlfies are like this

Question 15

Order Diptera

Answer 15

§ True flies; house flies; fruit flies; mosquitos etc
§ Single pair of wings
§ Sucking mouthpart
§ Legless larvae - maggots
§ Eggs can be laid in water, human waste, feces etc. (mosquitos do in water)
Prey for many insectovore birds, bats etc, - they are improtant for the food web

Question 16

incompelte metamorphasis

Answer 16

○ Also common is this type of dveelopment called hemimetabolism or incomplete metamorphasis, found in cockroaches, bedbugs, grasshopeprs, and true bugs
§ Theres the egg, nymph stage, and then adult - the adult is sexually matrue and usually has wings
§ Don’t have larval stage
Its incomplete bc the jeuvanile stage looks pretty similar to the adult - thye just grow larger and get wings

Question 17

Order Blattodea

Answer 17

§ Cockroaches and termites
§ Termites recently disocvered to be eusocial members of the order (by DNA evidence)
§ Similarties in terms of behaviors - prefer being in tight spaces, attarcted to warm and humid habitats, tendency to aggregate (get in groups, not neccesarily colonies), grooming and communication
Cockroaches have long antennae, sheild like plat near the head, oval shaped, chewing mouth parts

Question 18

Order Hemiptera

Answer 18

§ True bugs, stink bugs, aphids, milkweed bugs, cicadas, bed bugs
§ Large group iclduing many herbivores
§ Mouthparts for piercing and sucking - rostrum (their beak pierces in plants or skin)
§ Characteric wing type and method of folding wings
§ Many are pest insects
§ Numerous or large in size - prey item for insectivores
§ Bed Bugs:
□ Small wingless ectoparasites of mammals and birds
□ They feed on human blood
□ C lectularius is the only species found worldwide
□ All three tyes feed on bats - suggests a host jump during a time whne human dwelled in caves
□ Not known to transmit disease
□ Bit can be annoying and allergic rxn to their saliva can be produced raise pustules
□ Iron deficny may occur due to chronic blood loss
□ 5 nymphal instars
□ 10-50 eggs laid at a time
□ Must take a blood meal prior to molting, mating, laying eggs
Check for bed bugs near walls, under the bed, near wood especilly

Question 19

Class insecta

Answer 19

○ Class insecta in hexapoda subphylum in the phylum arthorpoda
§ Ex. Ephemeroptera (mayfly)
§ Nymph aquatic
§ Three tail filaments
§ Lateral or ventral external gills
Single claw at the end of each leg

Question 20

Chelicerata subphylum - class of spiders

Answer 20

In phylum arthopods is also the subphylum chelicerata which includes the class of spiders - SPIDERS ARE NOT INSECTS

also includes tciks in this subphlum - very closely related to spiders

Question 21

spiders

Answer 21

§ Spiders: not insects
§ Belong to a separate group of arthorpoids: chelicerata, Arachnida
§ Have six pairs of appendeges: one pair of chelicerae; one pair of pedipalps; and four pairs of walking legs
§ They have no mandible or antennae
§ Most chelicerates suck liquid food from their prey
§ Spiders are imprtant - they consmer 400m-800m tonnes of primarly insect prey every year - they consume same amount as the weight of meat and fish eaten every year by humans
§ Contribute to food web and urban landscaep by eating these pest insects - but a lot of things eat them too

		§ Arachnida; Araneae, Spiders:
			□ Web spinning habits
				® Spinning silk critical ability for spiders
				® Two or three pairs of spinnerets contain microscopic tubes that run to silk glands
				® Liquid scleroprotein secretion hardens as it is extruded from spinnerets 
				® Silk threads are very strong and will stretch considerably before breaking 
				® Silk is used for orb webs, lining burrows, forming eggs sacs and wrapping prey 
			□ Arrangement of the eyes of spiders can often identfuy to the family level
			□ There are over 100 families Orb weavers are most common family

		§ Spider reproduction:
			□ Reproduction is sexual and courtship rituals are imprtant for mate selection
			□ Rituals depend on spdier type - with humping spiders having the most complex
			□ Males deliver sperm to females using the pedipalps 
			□ Sexual cannibalism - females eating the male after mating - is widespread in spiders
			□ May have evolved as a result of sexual dimorphism
			□ After mating, females lay eggs in silken webs and carry or atatch the egg sac to a structure 
			□ Jevenile hatch as smaller adults, molting numerous times before growing to adult size

Question 22

Ticks

Answer 22

§ Arachnida; acari, ticks and mites (subphylum chelicerata):
□ Medically the most imprtant arachnids
□ Abt 30k species descrived
□ Both aquatic and terrestrial
□ Inhabit deserts, polar areas and hot springs
□ Ticks can range up to 2cm
□ Eggs > 6 legged larvae > 8 legged nymps > adults
□ Ticks prevalent in ontario
□ Long grass, especially at edges of forested areas
□ Areas where deer are known to travel
□ Black legged tick = deer tick can trasnmit lyme disease (borrelia spp)
□ Dog tciks arent as dangerous bc they don’t contain lyme disease
□ Even if no lyme disease u can still have a rxn to a tcik bc of its saliva - it can cause a rash or it can cause a allergy - like alpha gal syndrome is when u get bitten by lone star tick and u develop allerg y to red meat bc the protein their saliva cuases this allergy - u cant eat primate meat like beef or pork
Pull out tick with tweezers, don’t twist or poke or squash, just pull it out very slow