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Geography > Urban Environments > Flashcards

Urban Environments Flashcards

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1
Q

Urbanisation

A

The increasing proportion of people living in urban areas

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2
Q

Trends in urbanisation over the last 50 years

A
  • Emerging and developed economies have highest levels of urbanisation overall (90% of global urbanisation)
  • Lowest levels of urbanisation in Africa and SE Asia. However, rate of growth is now highest in developing countries (hyper-urbanisation)
  • Urban population is increasing proportionally faster than the world’s population (world doubled from 1950 to 2000, but urban trebled)
  • In 2008 for the first time in history over 50% of the world’s population lived in urban areas
  • It reached 54% in 2014 and is expected to reach 66% by 2050 and 75% by 2100
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3
Q

Suburbanisation

A

Urban settlements grow out towards the suburbs

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4
Q

What causes suburbanisation?

A
  • Better transport links between suburbs and CBD
  • CBD push factors e.g. congestion, overcrowding, pollution
  • Suburban pull factors e.g. Less pollution, greener, more space etc.
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5
Q

Dormitory settlement

A

Areas on the RUF where residents mainly sleep and then commute to the CBD for work i.e. they are used as dormitories and are very quiet during the working day and usually have good transport links but no services as there are few people there during the day

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6
Q

Counter-urbanisation

A

People “leap frog” the RUF and move out to rural areas. This encourages decentralisation of activities away from the CBD

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7
Q

Urban regeneration

A

Gentrification, Urban reimagining or rebranding. Central urban areas that were decentralised and went into decline can be redeveloped e.g. East London/ Stratford and Olympic Park area. Often leads to locals who remained there being priced out of the area due to house prices rising, and the emergence of “hipster shops” like avocado toast cafes, and no local convenience stores on the high street

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8
Q

Factors affecting the rate of urbanisation

A
  • Push and pull factors
  • Rate of population growth
  • High rates of rural-urban migration
  • High rates of natural increase (NI = BR - DR)
  • All of the above are linked together in a multiplier effect, as once momentum is achieved this will continue happening
  • Economies of scale (putting as much as possible into one megacity, rather than lots of smaller cities) also creates advantages
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9
Q

What happens as urban areas spread?

A

Rural dilation occurs in the countryside

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10
Q

Millionaire city

A

> 1 million people

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11
Q

Megacity

A

> 10 million people

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12
Q

Global/world city

A

Global significance e.g. financially such as London

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13
Q

Factors affecting urban agglomeration

A
  • River crossing points
  • Estuary mouths
  • Near a mineral resource
  • Near coast for trade potential
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14
Q

Problems associated with rapid urbanisation

A
  • Congestion
  • Transport
  • Employment
  • Crime
  • Environmental issues
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15
Q

Problems with housing due to rapid urbanisation

A
  • Demand > supply
  • Many expensive buildings unsuitable for those who have migrated and need low cost housing
  • 3 billion could end up in slums by 2050
  • 331 million new low cost homes will be needed in cities by 2025
  • Because of poor transport links (or not enough disposable income to pay for transport) the most sought after housing is close to the city centre
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16
Q

Problems with access to water and electricity due to rapid urbanisation

A
  • Demand > supply
  • In LICs they may rely of fuelwood
  • Streams can be polluted by sewerage
  • In 2015 there were 667 million urban residents without at least basic sanitation provision
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17
Q

Problems with congestion and transport due to rapid urbanisation

A
  • Also lags behind demand
  • Systems overcrowded. Smog and air pollution result
  • Also lots of noise and visual pollution in cities. In 2018 only 3% of cites met WHO air quality guidelines
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18
Q

Problems with employment due to rapid urbanisation

A

May be unable to find work once migrated to cities, so end up in the informal sector

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19
Q

Problems with crime due to rapid urbanisation

A

High crime rates

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20
Q

Factors affecting urban land use patterns

A
  • Locational needs
  • Accessibility
  • Land value
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21
Q

Types of urban land use

A
  • Residential
  • Commercial
  • Industrial
  • Manufacturing
  • Greenfield
  • Brownfield
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22
Q

What are residential areas affected by?

A

Wealth, occupation and ethnicity

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23
Q

How does land value affect urban land use patterns?

A
  • Urban land market (sites sold to the highest bidder). Retail normally makes the best use of land financially
  • Bid rent theory = refers to the price and demand for real estate change as the distance from the CBD increases
  • Peak Land Value Intersection (PLVI) = land value highest in CBD and declines outwards (with Secondary LVIs around ring roads and major intersections where good transport links enhance land value
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24
Q

How do locational needs affect urban land use patterns?

A

Certain businesses may accrete together due to making best use of similar infrastructure needs

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25
Q

Urban challenges in London, UK

A
  • Food
  • Energy
  • Transport
  • Waste disposal
  • Segregation
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26
Q

Transport and pollution challenges in London, UK

A

High NO2 levels due to congestion and idling cars

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27
Q

Energy challenges in London, UK

A
  • London will need 20% more energy by 2050
  • The increased dem cannot necessarily be matched, leading to energy security issues
  • According to the London Assembly, more than 1 in 10 households are designated as fuel poor due to a combination of low incomes and high energy costs. This lack of affordable energy can put residents at risk of fuel poverty
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28
Q

Food challenges in London, UK

A
  • 48% of food consumed in the UK is imported
  • Security issues regarding supply post Brexit as food will come at an additional cost to the consumer due to border checks and increased time to reach the consumer
  • Could further enhance food insecurity due to wealth disparities/deprivation
  • 8 million people in UK are at risk of food insecurity
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29
Q

Waste challenges in London, UK

A
  • London’s ecological footprint (demand for natural resources and ability to absorb waste) exceeds its biocapacity (supply) meaning ecological debtor/deficit
  • Footprint = 48,868,000 GHa
  • Biocapacity = 1,210,000 GHa
  • Only 52% of London’s waste is currently recycled
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30
Q

Segregation challenges in London, UK

A
  • By wealth, occupation, ethnicity, stage in family life cycle
  • 16% of Londoners are in the poorest tenth nationally, whilst 17% are in the richest tenth
  • Ethnic segregation (voluntary or force) could lead to gated communities. Often happens once migration has occurred as people want to live near to those with the same language, friends, shops selling food from their culture
  • Studentification - Neighbourhoods become dominated by student housing
31
Q

Urban challenges in Mumbai, India

A
  • Squatter settlements
  • Informal economy
  • Pollution
  • Low QOL
32
Q

Squatter settlement challenges in Mumbai, India

A
  • Dharavi slum is in Mumbai
  • 1 million residents (500,000 per km2 population density)
  • Basic services e.g. sanitation not provided
  • People construct things themselves, leading to a haphazard approach
33
Q

Pollution challenges in Mumbai, India

A
  • Pollution is a major problem due to sewage disposal in streams as >1000 people will share one toilet/use hanging toilets over rivers
  • Small scale industries also create air pollution via release of toxic fumes
34
Q

Informal economy challenges in Mumbai, India

A
  • Every day the city produces >10,000 tons solid waste
  • Ragpickers and those working in the recycling industry and informal economy work in incredibly hazardous conditions. Wounds quick become infect due to contact with biohazardous substances
  • Ragpickers and recyclers mainly come from the lower rungs of India’s caste system and struggle to gain formal recognition from the authorities, having a low QOL as a result
35
Q

Greenfield site

A

An area of agricultural or forest land, or some other undeveloped site which is usually protected from development, but is increasingly being earmarked for commercial development or industrial projects

36
Q

Brownfield site

A

Commercial or industrial site, now abandoned. Often environmental contamination that would have to be dealt with prior to redeveloping the site

37
Q

Why are things located in the Rural-Urban Fringe (RUF)?

A
  • Land is cheaper
  • There is room for expansion
  • Closer to transport links to allow export and import of goods
  • An attractive environment with little pollution
  • Plenty of car-parking space
  • Workers and work available nearby
38
Q

What is located in the Rural-Urban Fringe (RUF)?

A
  • Housing estates
  • Retail e.g. Bluewater
  • Business and science parks e.g. Southampton/Exeter University Science Parks
  • Industrial estates
39
Q

Advantages of Brownfield sites

A
  • Reduces the loss of countryside and land that might be put to agricultural or recreational use
  • Helps to revive old and disused urban areas
  • Services already in place
  • Located near to main areas of employment
40
Q

Disadvantages of Brownfield sites

A
  • Often more expensive because old buildings have to be cleared and land made free of pollution
  • Often surrounded by rundown areas so does not appeal to more wealthy people as residential sections
  • Higher levels of pollution, less healthy
  • May not have good access by road
41
Q

Advantages of Greenfield sites

A
  • Relatively cheap and rates of house building are faster
  • The layout is not hampered by previous development so can easily be made efficient and pleasant
  • Healthier environment
  • Proximity of countryside, leisure and recreation
42
Q

Disadvantages of Greenfield sites

A
  • Valueable farmland, recreational space and attractive scenery loss
  • Development causes noise and light pollution in the surrounding countryside
  • Wildlife and their habitats lost
  • Encourages further suburban sprawl
43
Q

Transport strategies for London, UK

A
  • Boris/Santander bikes (from as little as £2 to hire for 24 hours). >19,000 docking points across London
  • Cycle super highways and bike sheds aimed to give cyclists faster, safer and more direct routes, encourage more people to cycle to work
  • Crossrail (the Elizabeth line) - west to east line through London and surrounding areas. £15 billion project. Will add 105 more capacity to the rail network in central London. Regeneration along its route creating jobs. Projected to add $42 billion of GDP to UK economy
  • Hydrogen bus cells - helps reduce air pollution. Now Low Emission Bus Zones (2017)
  • New Victoria Underground line under construction = increase journeys on public transport
  • Congestion charge/ULEZ - £15 a day to enter central London. Profit invested into London’s transport system (£80 million over 5 years). 44% reduction in roadside NOx in central London over last 4 years with 50,000 fewer polluting vehicles being driven in the Congestion Charge area
  • London’s T-charge - T for toxicity (2017). Drivers of older, more polluting petrol and diesel cars have to pay a T-charge of £10 along with the congestion charge. Aim to improve air quality in central London
  • HS2 links London to cities in Midlands and North
44
Q

Energy strategies in London, UK

A
  • Footfall harvesting
  • Biofuels - some London taxi’s run on restaurant oil
45
Q

Food strategies in London, UK

A
  • Vertical farming and urban gardening will increase sustainability of food supply for cities
  • Food banks - 2000 across the UK. 1.6 million parcels given out per year
46
Q

Waste strategies for London, UK

A
  • Encourage circular city model, rather than a linear one. Follow circular economy principles
  • Waste hierarchy - Achieve zero municipal waste direct to landfill by 2025. Reduce the amount of household waste produced from 970kg per household in 2009/19 to 790kg per household in 2031. This is equivalent to a 20% reduction per household
47
Q

Top down strategies for Mumbai, India - Vision Mumbai

A
  • Relocates slum dwellers to purpose built blocks (though often many kilometres outside of city (cheaper land) leading to problems with seeing family and friends in the city)
  • Residents have their own toilets and kitchens inside their homes, though these are often still cramped spaces shared with other families.
  • The complexes have no shared communal spaces like terraces, or spaces for the children to play, which they did have in the slums
48
Q

Waste disposal strategies for Mumbai, India

A
  • Dharavi informal recycling industry recycles around 80% of Mumbai’s waste
  • Banned plastic bag usage
  • Mangroves aid health and wellbeing via being a green space. Also filter pollution (both air and water)
49
Q

Transport strategies for Mumbai, India

A

New underground metro transport link park of “Mumbai Urban Transport Project” (MUTP). $344 million investment from 2010-16 to improve transport network

50
Q

Healthcare strategies for Mumbai, India

A

SMILE foundation NGO “smile on wheels” project since 2013 with mobile health clinics

51
Q

Segregation strategies for London, UK

A

Pepper pot housing

52
Q

In what order do urban processes happen?

A
  • Agglomeration
  • Suburbanisation
  • Commuting
  • Urban regeneration
  • Counter-urbanisation
  • Urban reimaging
  • Urbanisation of suburbs
53
Q

What is agglomeration?

A

People and economic activities concentrate at favourable locations

54
Q

What occurs when commuting increases?

A
  • Increased transport links between the suburbs and CBD (increased reliability and improved infrastructure)
  • Overcrowding, congestion and high land prices for CBD
  • Declining quality of the residential environment near the CBD
55
Q

What is counter-urbanisation?

A

When cities grow bigger, some people move straight from urban to rural areas

56
Q

What is urban reimaging?

A
  • Due to suburbanisation and counter-urbanisation central parts often end up abandoned and run down
  • This leads to areas needing REGERNATING, REBRANDING and REIMAGING
57
Q

What occurs as you move outward from the CBD?

A
  • The general age of the area decreases
  • The style and architecture of the built environment changes
  • The overall density of development decreases
58
Q

What is in the core?

A
  • Oldest part of a city
  • Normally contains some of the earliest buildings
  • Normally contains the CBD
59
Q

What is in the inner city?

A
  • Early suburbs - old housing (often terrace)
  • Old industrial land (deindustrialisation)
60
Q

What is in the suburbs?

A
  • Present suburbs (older nearer the centre)
  • Housing is the dominant land use
61
Q

What is in the RUF?

A
  • Transition from urban into countryside
  • Pressure on green space for alternative use
62
Q

What is the urbanisation pathway?

A
  1. Developing - early urbanisation
  2. Emerging - accelerating urbanisation
  3. Developed - mature urbanisation
  4. Developed - counter-urbanisation
    OR
  5. The rural society phase
  6. Economic take-off begins
  7. Maturing economy
  8. Mass urbanisation in most developed countries
  9. In advanced economies a fifth phase may be seen where people begin to move back to semi-rural areas
63
Q

What happens in the rural society phase?

A

Low levels of urbanisation and a largely rural population of subsistence farmers

64
Q

What happens when economic take-off begins?

A

Rapid rural-to-urban migration leads to an accelerating rate of urbanisation

65
Q

What happens during a maturing economy?

A

Rates of urbanisation continue to rise steadily as towns develop and enlarge

66
Q

What happens during mass urbanisation in most develop countries?

A

Rate of urbanisation slows but achieves highest level and most people now live in towns

67
Q

What may be seen to happen in advanced economies when people begin to move back to semi-rural areas?

A

Counter-urbanisation for lifestyle reasons

68
Q

Factors affecting the emergence of megacities

A
  • Economic development
  • Population growth
  • Economies of scale
  • The multiplier effect
69
Q

How does economic development affect the emergence of megacities?

A
  • The pace of economic development drives urbanisation - particularly secondary (manufacturing) and tertiary (services) sectors
  • Up to a point, economic growth needs an increasing labour supply
70
Q

How does population growth affect the emergence of megacities?

A
  • Rural-to-urban migration
  • Natural increase
71
Q

How do economies of scale affect the emergence of megacities?

A

The larger the scale of an urban area, the larger are the potential savings of production, for example, financial savings in terms of transport and communication between people and businesses

72
Q

How does the multiplier effect affect the emergence of megacities?

A
  • Once a large city is prospering, it gathers momentum which sees further progress
  • Economic growth encourages population growth -> population growth makes more labour available but also increases the demand for services
  • Money spent in the economy circles more times (multiple times)
  • There is also a “buzz” to live in young “happening” cities
73
Q

Bottom up strategies in Mumbai, India - SPARC NGO

A
  • Focused on giving the poor a say in the development of the city
  • Works on sanitation and housing
  • The key to this success is working with women’s collectives in communities and empowering them to make a difference
  • Creates sustainable and affordable solutions to the housing crisis
  • Has built or is building housing for over 8500 families

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