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BIO 110 > Unknown Material Exam Two > Flashcards

Unknown Material Exam Two Flashcards

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1
Q

What are cis-trans isomers?

A

Cis-trans isomers have a opposite orientation around a double bond.

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2
Q

What are optical isomers?

A

Optical isomers are isomers in which four different groups are around a central carbon and it creates an asymmetric carbon / mirror image.

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3
Q

Briefly explain the functional group hydroxyl.

A

Hydroxyl is a polar charged group that helps water dissolve molecules by forming H bonds and enables linkages to other molecules by condensation

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4
Q

Briefly explain the functional group carboxyl.

A

Carboxyl is a charged acidic group that ionizes in living tissues to form COO- and H+

It also enters into condensation reactions by giving up an -OH, and they are sometimes important in energy releasing reactions

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5
Q

Briefly explain the functional group amino.

A

NH2 charged (-1) basic because it accepts H+ and forms NH3* and enters into condensation by giving up H+ Water soluble and is considered a weak base

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6
Q

Briefly explain the functional group phosphate.

A

PO4
charged, acidic, because it gives up a H+ water soluble, and important in energy transfer
enters into condensation reaction by giving up OH when bonded to another phosphate

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7
Q

What are organic compounds made of?

A

Organic compounds, except for lipids, consist of monomers

The elements that they consist of are Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen, and Nitrogen

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8
Q

What is the function and importance of proteins?

A

A few examples of their functions and importance is proteins that help with movement, proteins that help with signaling, and proteins that act as enzymes.

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9
Q

Why are carbohydrates important to life?

A
  1. They store energy to be used later
  2. They act as transporters of energy
  3. They form extracellular structures
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10
Q

Why are lipids important to life?

A
  1. They provide nutrients for organisms
  2. They act as thermal insulation
  3. They are an integral part of the cell membrane
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11
Q

Why are nucleic acids so important to life?

A
  1. Storage and transmission of genetic information
  2. the code of DNA gives us the code for RNA/proteins - transcription is DNA to RNA - (gene expression)
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12
Q

What is secondary structure

A

repeated spacial patterns in different regions of a poly peptide chain that is composed of H bonds

coils and sheets of the primary structure

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13
Q

What are the two types of secondary structure?

A

Alpha helix- right handed coil that results from H bonding between (N-H) and (C=O)

Beta pleated sheets- when two or more chains align and H-bonds form between (N-H) and (C=O)

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14
Q

What are examples of monosaccarhides?

A

ribose, deoxyribose, glucose, mannose, fructose

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15
Q

What is a disaccharide?

A

A disaccharide is two simple sugars linked by covalent bonds

Eg. sucrose (glucose + fructose)

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16
Q

What are the three polysaccharides?

A
  1. Cellulose - very stable good for structural component unbranched (tightly packed, linearly
  2. Starch - glucose storage in plants branched (limits the amount of h-bonds that can form, less compact

3.Glycogen - glucose storage in animals highly branched makes it more compact than starch

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17
Q

What is the structure of a triglyceride?

A

three fatty acids attached to a glycerol

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18
Q

What is the structure of a phospholipid?

A

a phosphate group attached to a glycerol with two fatty acid tails

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19
Q

How are glycerol and the three fatty acids joined?

A

When the carboxyl of the fatty acids and hydroxyl of glycerol in an ester linkage which is a covalent bond and it releases three water molecules

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20
Q

What does amphipathic mean?

A

Amphipathic describes a molecules that bears both polar and non-polar groups

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21
Q

What does transmission and storage mean in relation to nucleic acids?

A

The storage of genetic information means that within our code of DNA contains the instruction for transcribing into RNA then translating proteins.

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22
Q

What are the two types of nitrogenous bases? Briefly explain their structure and explain which ones are which.

A

Two types are purines and pyrimidines

Purines are a double fused ring structure of six carbon and are Adenine and Guanine

Pyrimidines are a single ring six carbon structure and are Cytosine, Thymine and Uracil

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23
Q

What is the bond between two nucleotides?

A

The bond is called a phosphodiester linkage

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24
Q

Why does DNA/ RNA grow only in the 5’ to 3’ direction?

A

Because of the shape of the enzymes / proteins can only perform their actions in one specific direction, and generally because of its antiparallel nature

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25
Q

How do two strands of DNA stay together?

A

through the process of complimentary base pairing —- when purine base ends bond with pyrimidine base ends through hydrogen bonds to hold them together

How many hydrogen bonds between A-T? 2
How many hydrogen bonds between C-G? 3

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26
Q

What is the difference between a saturated and unsaturated fatty acid

A

Saturated fatty acids are when there are no double bonds between carbons
saturated with hydrogen atoms, tightly packed
usually appear as solids at room temp

Unsaturated fatty acids are when one or more double bonds appear in a hydrocarbon chain, *the double bond kinks prevent close packing
usually appear as liquids at room temp

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27
Q

What are the two theories of how life arose?

A
  1. Chemical evolution which entails that conditions on primitive earth led to formation of simple molecules, which eventually led to life
  2. Life from outside earth describes the travel of life on a meteorite from space/planets, since some contain nitrogenous bases and amino acids

Likely unprovable

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28
Q

Describe the Miller Urey experiments.

A

their hypothesis - organic chemical compounds can be generated under conditions similar to those that existed in the atmosphere of primitive earth

Step 1. Heat chemicals to form atmosphere of methane, ammonia, hydrogen, and water vapor,

Step 2. provide energy with electrical sparks (simulating lightning)

Step 3. Cool gases in the rain contains new compounds

Step 4. Collects and analyze condensed liquid

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29
Q

What is the key to the origin of life?

A

the appearance of catalysts

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30
Q

What are riboenzymes?

A

they are catalytic RNAs that speed up reactions involving their own nucleotides

RNA likely acted as a catalyst for its own replication and synthesis of proteins, then DNA evolved later

31
Q

What is a proto cell?

A
  1. They are the stepping stones for the origin of cells
  2. They are self organized sphere of lipids that allows small molecules like sugars and nucleotides to pass through
32
Q

What are the four tenets of cell theory?

A
  1. Cells are the fundamental units of life
  2. All organisms are composed of cells
  3. All cells come from pre-existing cells
  4. Modern cells evolved from a common ancestor
33
Q

What are the implications of cell theory?

A
  1. Functions of all cells are similar
  2. Life is continuous
  3. Origin of life was the origin of cells
34
Q

How much bigger are eukaryotes than prokaryotes?

A

10x

35
Q

What is the composition, function, and characteristics of the cell membrane?

A

It is composed of a phospholipid bilayer hydrophilic heads hydrophobic tails, with proteins inside of it.

Its function is for protection, separation and its proteins allow adherence/binding/communication to other cells

characteristics of the membrane include being similar in all cells and being selectively permeable

36
Q

What do all prokaryotic cells contain, and what is the function of each?

A
  1. Cell membrane
  2. Nucleoid-region of where DNA is
  3. Cytoplasm-rest of the cell contents
  4. Ribosomes-site of protein synthesis
37
Q

What is the cell wall and what is it composed of?

A

The cell wall is the rigid structure outside the cell membrane that determines shape and provides support

Composed of peptidoglycan and the outer membrane

38
Q

What is the cell wall and what is it composed of?

A

The cell wall is the rigid structure outside the cell membrane that determines shape and provides support

Composed of peptidoglycan and the outer membrane

39
Q

What is the outer membrane?

A

It is an additional phospholipid membrane found outside the peptidoglycan layer

40
Q

What is the capsule?

A

It is the slimy outermost layer of polysaccharides that protects cells

41
Q

What is the flagella?

A

It is the appendage that helps the cell swim

42
Q

What are pili?

A

They are hairlike structures that project from the cell surface and help bacteria adhere to other cells

43
Q

What is the function of the ribosomes?

A

they are the site of protein snthesis

44
Q

What is the rough ER?
Explain its purpose and characteristics.

A

it is part of the ER and it has ribosomes attached which synthesize amino acids through translation.

the newly made proteins (to be used in the endomembrane system) enter the RER lumen and are modified, folded, and transported elsewhere

45
Q

What is the smooth ER?
Explain the functions and characteristics.

A

a part of the ER that contains no ribosomes,

its purpose is to chemically modify small molecules, like drugs, pesticides

it is also the site of glycogen degradation in animal cells

it synthesizes lipids, and steroids, and also stores calcium ions

46
Q

What is the Golgi apparatus?
explain the characteristics and functions.

A

is flattened sacs (cisternae) and small vesicles and is near to the ER

it receives proteins from the ER through vesicles and modifies them further

it concentrates, packages and stores proteins

in plant cells, it syntheses polysaccharides for cell wall (cellulose)

47
Q

What is phagocytosis, and what is formed as a result?

A

it is the process of ingesting particles or other cells into a cell, which forms a phagosome

48
Q

What is a lysosome and what are the two types?

A

they contain digestive enzymes that hydrolyze (hydrolysis) macromolecules into monomers

Primary lysosomes - originate from the Golgi apparatus

Secondary lysosomes - are primary lysosomes that are fused with phagosomes

49
Q

What are peroxisomes?

A

They are eukaryotic organelles that collect and break down toxic byproducts of metabolism (H2O2)

50
Q

Explain the structure and function of the nucleus.

A

The nucleus is the site of DNA replication, where gene transcription is turned on/off

Contains the nucleolus (where ribosomes are made)

Contains the nuclear envelope (double membrane surrounding the nucleus) has pores for movement

51
Q

What is the endomembrane system, and what is it composed of?

A

The endomembrane system is an interconnected system of membrane compartments

Composed of:
1. Cell membrane
2. Nuclear envelope
3. ER (smooth+rough)
4. Golgi Apparatus
5. Lysosomes

52
Q

Explain the structure, function, and what type of cells contain the mitochondria.

A

The function is to convert chemical bond energy into a usable form (ATP) and they are found in eukaryotic cells

The structure consists of 5 things: an outer membrane, the inter membrane space, the inner membrane, the cristae (folds of the inner membrane), and the mitochondrial matrix (contains enzymes, DNA, ribosomes

53
Q

How did the nucleus and the endomembrane system originate?

A

Originated from inward folds of cell membrane in prokaryotes.

54
Q

What is the endosymbiotic theory?

A

The mitochondria and the plastids arose when one cell engulfed another

Mitochondria originated as aerobic bacteria
Chloroplasts originated as photosynthetic bacteria

55
Q

How can the structure of phospholipids vary in the bilayer?

A

Things that may vary:
1. the fatty acid chain length
2. the degree of saturation
3. the phosphate groups

membranes are dynamic, constantly forming, transforming, fusing, and breaking down

56
Q

describe the fluid mosaic model and how does fluidity vary?

A

it is the general structure of biological membranes which contain the basic lipid bilayer (lake) and a variety of proteins which float.

fluidity depends on a few things

  1. lipid concentration, cholesterol and saturated, long fatty acid chains pack tightly and make it less fluid
  2. fluidity decreases as the temp drops, some organisms even change composition of lipids from saturated to unsaturated when temp drops
57
Q

What are transmembrane domains?

A

They are locations on the inner or outer side of the bilayer that have specific functions

58
Q

What is cell recognition?

A

When one cell specifically recognizes and binds to another cell of a certain type

59
Q

What is cell adhesion?

A

Stickying of cells that makes connection between the two stronger

60
Q

What are cell junctions?

A

They are specialized structures that hold cells together

61
Q

What is the ECM?

A

It is the heterogenous mix of materials surrounding cells, some of which include, proteoglycans, polysaccharides, proteins and extracellular vesicles

62
Q

What is an example of a transmembrane protein that binds to the EMC

A

Integrin

63
Q

What are the three types of cell junctions?

A
  1. Tight junctions - prevent substances from moving through spaces between cells, (bladder)
  2. Desmosomes - “spot welds materials can move around in the ECM and it provides mechanical stability (skin)
  3. Gap junctions - allows communication, channel proteins, muscles/nerve
64
Q

Where does the energy come from in passive transport?

A

Energy comes from the concentration gradient

65
Q

Review the table that explains the cellular energy required, driving force, membrane protein requirement, and the specificity for Simple Diffusion, Facilitated Diffusion, and Active Transport

A

delete me when your done :)

66
Q

What effects the rate of diffusion

A
  1. Temperature of the solution
    2.Size and mass of molecules or ions
  2. Density of the solution
  3. The concentration gradient
  4. Area and distance across which the substance diffuses
67
Q

What doesn’t affect rate of diffusion?

A

Other substances in the solution

68
Q

What is turgor pressure?

A

When plant cells with rigid cells walls build up internal pressure that keep more water from entering.

69
Q

What are the three different types of proteins involved in active transport?

A
  1. Uniporter (uni = one) - moves one substance in one direction
  2. Symporter (sym = same) - moves two substances in one direction
  3. Antiporter - moves two substances in opposite directions
70
Q

Explain Primary Active transport.

A

process of moving two substances against their concentration gradient which requires direct hydrolysis of a high energy molecule

uses a integral glycoprotein (antiporter)

71
Q

Explain secondary active transport.

A

when the energy from the concentration gradient established from primary active transport is used to transport other molecules such as glucose against their gradient

a symporter protein (two things SAME direction) couples the movement of glucose against the concentration gradient with the passive movement of Na+

72
Q

Describe the relative size of the vesicles formed in pinocytosis to phagocytosis.

A

pinocytosis has much smaller vesicles

73
Q

What is receptor mediated endocytosis?

A

Very specific, process by which macromolecules bind to receptor proteins

Example in the liver is cholesterol is packaged into low-density lipoprotein LDL and secreted into the bloodstream; and cells that need cholesterol have receptors for LDL in clathrin coated pits

BIO 110 (19 decks)

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