Unit D Human Systems Flashcards
Catabolic metabolism
large chemicals are broken into smaller ones
Energy is released
Anabolic metabolism
complex chemicals are built from smaller ones
Energy is required
Neutral:
pH ~7
Neutralization reaction (acid + base → salt + water)
Hydrogen ions = hydroxide ions
Acidic:
pH < 7
Hydrogen ions > hydroxide ions
Basic:
pH > 7
Hydrogen ions < hydroxide ions
Inorganic Molecules -
no carbon bound to hydrogen:
Minerals
Water
Organic Molecules
contain carbon and hydrogen bound
Carbohydrates
Proteins
Nucleic Acids
Lipids (Fats)
Vitamins
Most large biological molecules are
polymers
Polymers are long chains of repeating molecular subunits, or building blocks, called
monomers
Monosaccharides:
1 sugar (eg. glucose, fructose, galactose)
Used as monomers to build more complex sugars (polymers / polysaccharides)
Disaccharides:
Two monosaccharides put together by dehydration synthesis
Can be broken down into the monosaccharides by hydrolysis to break the bond joining the two monosaccharides.
Polysaccharides:
many sugar units/monosaccharides put together (eg. starch, glycogen, cellulose)
in dehydration synthesis,
large biological molecules assemble.
A water molecule is released in the process (dehydration = remove water) and this allows for two monomers to join with a covalent bond. This is an anabolic reaction.
In hydrolysis,
polymers are broken down into monomers.
Carbohydrates are ____ We can identify them by their suffix ___
sugars, “-ose”
carbohydrates have a ratio of…
a carbon-hydrogen-oxygen ratio of 1:2:1
glucose, fructose, and galactose are all examples of
monosaccharides
Lipids
non-polar molecules (insoluble in water)
often made of a glycerol backbone and a fatty acids combined through dehydration synthesis
lipid Functions:
structural materials (cell membranes, cushion delicate organs, carrier for fat soluble vitamins [A, D, E, K], raw materials of hormones)
energy reservoirs (excess glycogen in animals is converted into fat)
four Groups:
Triglycerides: fats, oils
Phospholipids: membranes
Waxes
Sterols: cholesterol, steroids
Animal triglycerides (fats)
(Saturated fats)
Saturated fats have single bonds throughout and are quite stable so these fats are difficult for our bodies to break down.
Solid (fat) or semi-solid (oil) at room temperature
Plant triglycerides (oils)
(Unsaturated fats)
Polyunsaturated meaning they have some double bonds that are more reactive than single bonds, so they are easier for our bodies to break down.
Sterols include..
Cholesterol
Steroids (hormones; chemical messengers)
Male sex hormones are called androgens
Female sex hormones are called estrogens
Liposome is…
double layered sphere used to:
Carry drugs throughout the body
Gene therapy: introduce new DNA to cells
Essential Amino Acids:
are amino acids that our bodies cannot produce. We get these amino acids from the foods we eat
The ____ is what the protein is made up of
primary structure
The _____ are the initial coils and folds that occur, based on the hydrogen bonds between amino acids
secondary structure
The ____ is the irregular folding that occurs as a result of the interactions between the R-groups [chains/branches on amino acid].
tertiary structure
The ____ occurs when there is clustering of two or more polypeptides into one macromolecule.
quarternary structure
Denature means…
bonds are disrupted causing temporary change. The protein can resume its original shape once the factor is removed
Coagulation means…
results in a permanent change in the protein shape. (Eg. boiling an egg)
Exposing a protein to excessive heat, radiation, or pH change can alter the protein’s…
shape or function.
testing for Carbohydrates…
to test for simple sugars, test with Benedict’s reagent and heat. A colour change will be present if a reducing sugar is present.
testing for Starch…
to test for complex sugars, we test with iodine. If starch is present, there will be a dark purple colour.
testing for proteins…
to test for proteins we do a biuret test which will react with peptide bonds. The more bonds, the darker the purple colour
testing for lipids…
a common way to test for lipids is using a brown paper bag to do a translucence test. The brown paper bag will absorb lipids.
Enzymes are…
catalysts. This means they are able to speed up the rate of reactions WITHOUT being consumed/changed in the process.
permit low temperature reactions by reducing the activation energy.
A good indication that you have an enzyme is that it will end in
“-ase”
Enzyme Parts:
Active Site: site of reaction
Substrate: substance changed by enzyme, can be built or split (anabolic or catabolic)
Enzyme Models:
Lock & Key Model: Active site is rigid and fits only the properly shaped substrate
Induced Fit Model: Active site is flexible and can change to fit the substrate
Enzyme reaction rate (activity) is affected by:
Substrate Molecule Concentration,
Temperature,
Competitive Inhibitors
Substrate Molecule Concentration is..
the more substrate molecules that are available, the greater the number of interactions between the substrate and enzyme = increase in reaction rate!
Ingestion is…
act of eating
Digestion is..
process of food breakdown (enzymatic hydrolysis)
Absorption…
the uptake of small molecules
Egestion is …
removal of undigested material
Mechanical [Physical] Digestion is…
involves physically breaking the food into smaller pieces. Mechanical digestion includes chewing (mastication), churning of food in the stomach, and segmentation in the small intestine.
Chemical Digestion is…
involves breaking down the food into simpler nutrients with enzymes. Chemical digestion begins in the mouth with salivary amylase.
salivary glands contain…
contains salivary amylase which breaks down starch (chemical digestion).
The ____ is a muscular tube that carries food to the stomach.
esophagus
Food is moved by ____ which are rhythmic contractions that force food down to the stomach.
peristalsis,
At the distal end of the esophagus there is a sphincter called the ___ that leads to the stomach.
cardiac sphincter or lower esophageal sphincter (LES)
Food remains in the stomach for about ____, before exiting the____ into the Small Intestine.
2-4 hours, Pyloric Sphincter
Pepsin is..
an enzyme that is used to break down proteins
Rennin (Chymosin) is ….
a milk clotting protein that is important in digestion for babies (tapers off early in place of pepsin
Endoscope is..
a flexible tube shaped instrument with a lens and light source that can be fitted with a laser to diagnose problems and/or perform surgery.
The small intestine is…
the primary site of chemical digestion and nutrient absorption
three segments to the small intestine:
Duodenum
Jejunum
Ileum
The small intestines ridges have finger like projections called____ that help with absorption and mixing food with enzymes.
Villi (singular = villus)
The villi have small hair-like projections called ___ to help with absorption even more!
microvilli
Blood vessels (capillary network) absorbs..
absorb amino acids and monosaccharides. Will also absorb some water
Lacteal is…
a small vessel within the small intestine villi that absorbs fatty acids (digested fats) into the lymphatic system
The large intestine is responsible for…
storing leftover organic material (feces) and some absorption
The pocket and small extension at the start of the long intestine are called the ___ and ___
cecum and appendix.
the colon and has three parts called..
(ascending, transverse, descending).
the major part of the long intestine is referred to as the…
colon
The last part of the long intestine is the ___
rectum
Functions of the large intestine:
Absorb water and electrolytes
Produces and absorbs vitamins [Vitamin B & K]
Forms and propels feces to rectum for elimination
Home to E. coli and other bacteria
the function of the rectum is
storing feces before egestion.
Functions of cecum:
Absorb fluids and salts that remain after intestinal digestion and absorption. Mixes contents with mucus, to lubricate
organs that secrete substances that aid in the digestion and absorption of nutrients include..
Pancreas
Liver
Gallbladder
Functions of appendix:
House “good” bacteria (probiotics) that aid in vitamin synthesis & digestive health
The pancreas is an ____, meaning it secretes substances via ducts.
exocrine gland
The gallbladder is
a small organ that is very closely linked to the liver.
The gallbladder stores..
bile, and a combination of fluids, fats, and cholesterol.
Bile enters into the small intestine via the ___ when proteins are detected
bile duct
an emulsifier means it….
breakins large fat globules into smaller droplets [mechanical digestion]
Bile is made of 2 main components:
Bile Salts: help breakdown fat globules
Bile Pigments: liver breaks down Red Blood Cells and stores in gallbladder for removal
Gallstones are..
bile salts and cholesterol that form large crystals in the gallbladder that block the bile duct
Jaundice is..
yellowing of skin and other tissues
(eg. eyes). Can be caused by a blocked bile duct.
Cirrhosis is..
chronic liver inflammation. Damaged liver tissue gets replaced by non-functioning fat and connective tissue decreasing normal liver functioning.
Bile helps to….
break down lipids in your intestine. It is an emulsifier
Ventilation (Breathing) is…
the process by which air enters and leaves the lungs.
air goes in and air comes out
Gas Exchange (Respiration) is…
the process of diffusion of O2 and CO2
O2 from lungs → circulatory system → cells
CO2 from cells → circulatory system → lungs
Cellular Respiration is…
the oxidation of glucose in the production of ATP.
Glucose + O2 → CO2 + H2O + ATP
The Flow of Air from Nose to Blood
Nostrils
Nasal Cavity
Pharynx
Epiglottis
Larynx
Trachea
Bronchi
Bronchioles
Alveoli
Capillaries
structures and functions of the Nasal Cavity:
2 nostrils; connects to pharynx
Filter the air, and trap particles (eg dust) using tiny hairs and mucus
Warms and moistens the air
structures and functions of the Pharynx:
Air filled channel at the back of the mouth
Passageway for food and air; will branch out to the esophagus or towards the trachea
structures and functions of the Epiglottis:
Flap that covers the trachea when swallowing to prevent food from entering.
If epiglottis does not close, the reflex is a cough
structures and functions of the Larynx: AKA “voicebox”
Contains 2 elastic ligaments. When air passes through the ligaments vibrate producing sound
Larynx surrounded by layer of thick cartilage which forms the “Adam’s Apple” [more pronounced in males]
structures and functions of the Trachea: AKA “windpipe”
Lined with mucus-producing cells and cilia
Mucus traps particles/debris that made it past the nasal filtration
Cilia help “sweep” particles back up towards the mouth
Surrounded by rings of cartilage and smooth muscle to prevent collapsing (keep trachea open)
Connects larynx to the two bronchi
structures and functions of the Bronchi:
Trachea branches into 2 tubes called the bronchi (singular: bronchus)
Left & Right bronchi
Contain cartilage bands to prevent collapse
Carry air into the right and left lung
structures and functions of the Bronchioles:
Bronchi split into smaller branches called bronchioles
There are NO cartilage bands
Contains rings of muscle to control diameter of airway (dilate and constrict)
Wheezing (eg. asthma) can be caused by the constriction of bronchioles
structures and functions of the Alveoli:
Tiny air sacs (0.20µm) at the end of the bronchioles
Each lung contains ~150 MILLION alveoli
Contains a thin film of lipoprotein (to prevent alveoli from sticking together)
Very thin (one cell thick) surrounded by capillary network
HUGE surface area
Site of gas exchange
Diffusion with concentration gradient; O2 into capillaries; CO2 out of capillaries
structures and functions of the Pleural Membrane:
2 thin membranes
One surrounds the outer surface of lung
One surrounds the inner surface of thoracic cavity (ribs)
Between the membranes is a lubricant to reduce friction
structures and functions of the Diaphragm:
Dome-shaped band of muscle
Separates thoracic cavity from abdominal cavity
Helps with inhalation & exhalation as a result of changing pressure
structures and functions of the Intercostal Muscles
Muscles attached to rib cage that help with breathing
Muscles contract (flex): pulls rib cage up and out, increasing volume of chest
Muscles relax: chest wall pushes against lungs to help force air
Inhalation:
Diaphragm contracts (the diaphragm will flatten down)
Intercostal muscles contract (pulling ribs up and out)
Exhalation:
Diaphragm relaxes (the diaphragm will return to dome position)
Intercostal muscles relax (ribs spring down and in)
The amount of air that moves in and out of the lungs with each breath can be measured with a …
spirograph.
Tidal Volume is…
volume of air that can be inhaled and exhaled in a normal breath
Inspiratory Reserve Volume is…
additional volume of air that can be taken into the lung
Expiratory Reserve Volume is …
additional volume of air that can be forced out of the lungs
Vital Capacity is…
The total volume of air that can be moved in and out of the lungs
Residual Volume is…
the amount of air that remains in the lungs
oxygen is,..
Constantly being used by cells in the tissues
Always a LOW partial pressure of O2 in the cells, so it is able to move INTO the cells
Required for cellular respiration
carbon dioxide is…
Constantly being produced by cells in the tissues
Always a HIGH partial pressure of CO2 in the cells, so it is able to move OUT OF the cells
Product of cellular respiration
Hemoglobin is….
an oxygen-carrying molecule, consisting of iron and protein that forms a weak bond with dissolved O2 molecule.
Carbon dioxide is ___ more soluble than oxygen
20X
carbon dioxide can move through the body by:
Dissolved in the plasma (~9%)
Attached to hemoglobin (~27%) → carbaminohemoglobin
As carbonic acid with water (~64%) → bicarbonate ions in the blood for pH buffering
Chemoreceptors is..
specialized nerve receptors that are sensitive to specific chemicals.
the two types of chemoreceptors are…
Carbon dioxide chemoreceptors
Oxygen chemoreceptors
Carbon Dioxide Chemoreceptors:
- MAIN regulators of breathing
- Located in the medulla oblongata of the brain
- Detects increased amount of CO2 in the form of an acid in blood
- Nerves cells in medulla oblongata send nerve impulses to diaphragm and intercostal muscles to increase breathing rate
- Increases exchange of CO2 and O2
- When CO2 levels decrease, the chemoreceptors inactivate
Oxygen Chemoreceptors:
- BACKUP regulators of breathing
- Located in the carotid and aortic arteries
- Detects decreased levels of O2 [but normal CO2]
Eg. high altitudes, carbon monoxide poisoning - Sends nerve impulses to the medulla oblongata, which send nerve impulses to diaphragm and intercostal muscles to increase breathing rate
- Increases exchange of CO2 and O2
- Able to also detect increases in CO2, but the medulla is more sensitive to these changes
Factors That INCREASE Breathing rate
CO2 Increase
O2 Decrease:
[H+] Increase:
CO2 Increase:
Medulla Oblongata detects high CO2 levels
Medulla Oblongata sends nerve signal to diaphragm and intercostal muscles to INCREASE breathing
O2 Decrease:
Carotid and Aortic arteries detect low O2 levels and sends message to Medulla Oblongata
Medulla Oblongata sends nerve signal to diaphragm and intercostal muscles to INCREASE breathing
[H+] Increase:
Hydrogen ion concentration related to pH. Lots of H+ = low pH (acid)
H+ level increases when CO2 increases
Bronchitis is caused by…
Caused by bacterial or viral infections or by reactions to environmental chemicals
“-itis” means an inflammation of so Bronchitis is an inflammation of the bronchioles causing:
Narrowing of air passages
Increased mucus secretions
Difficulty with air movement
Asthma is…
Reversible narrowing of the bronchial passage
Tissues that line the walls of the bronchioles swell and may spasm
Increase in mucus secretions causing difficulty with breathing
May hear wheezing as flow is restricted
Emphysema is..
Over-inflation of the lungs cause the walls of the alveoli to stretch and rupture
Loss of alveoli = less surface area for gas exchange = lower O2 level
Usually accompanied by chronic bronchitis in a condition called Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD)
Lung Cancer is…
Uncontrolled growth of cells = tumor
Causes decrease in surface area for gas diffusion
Tumors may even block the bronchioles, reducing the airflow to the lungs (potentially causing lung collapse)
Pneumothorax means a..
Collapsed lung
Laryngitis is..
Inflammation of the larynx
Respiratory Distress Syndrome
When the lipoprotein on the alveoli is missing in some newborns (especially premature babies) the force to overcome the surface tension is so great that the alveoli are collapsed. May result in death.
Blood is considered a ____ because it links all cells and organs in the body.
connective tissue
Plasma is..
the fluid component of blood
__% of blood volume is plasma
55%
3 types of proteins:
Albumins: maintain osmotic balance by drawing water back into the capillaries
Globulins: produce antibodies to fight infection, and transport fats
Fibrinogen: helps with blood clotting
The remaining 45% of blood volume is made up of several cell types:
Erythrocytes: red blood cells (RBCs)
Leukocytes: white blood cells (WBCs)
Thrombocytes: platelets
qualities of Erythrocytes: red blood cells (RBCs)
- Make up 99% of all blood cells
- Specially designed to carry oxygen using the iron-containing compound hemoglobin
- Lack a nucleus (enucleated)
- Can’t reproduce, but increases the O2 carrying capacity
- Biconcave shape (increases the amount of surface area than a spherical cell)
Anemia is..
A condition characterized by a lack of RBCs and hemoglobin, decreasing oxygen delivery to cells.
Can be caused by iron deficiency or hemorrhage (loss of blood)
qualities of Leukocytes: white blood cells (WBCs)
- Make up ~1% of blood cells
- Responsible for immune system responses
- Have a nucleus (nucleated)
- Produced in bone marrow
- There are many types: Leukocytes,
Phagocytes, Granulocytes
qualities of Thrombocytes: platelets…
Less than 1% of blood cells
- Responsible for blood clotting reactions
- No nucleus (enucleated)
- Produced in bone marrow
- Irregularly shaped
- Platelets float through blood vessels and catch on broken vessel walls causing a tear in the platelet, which initiates blood clotting
a Thrombus is…
a blood clot that blocks a blood vessel.
In the brain this causes a stroke
In the heart this causes a heart attack
a Embolus is…
a blood clot that dislodges and travels through the circulatory system to vital organs. Can be life threatening.
blood type A: have..
the “A” antigen on the cells
blood type B: have..
the “B” antigen on the cells
blood type AB have…
have BOTH A & B antigen
blood type O have..
do not have either antigen
Antigen is..
protein markers on the surface of all cells that are used to help identify the cell. Antigens are like a “fingerprint”
Antibodies are…
Y-shaped proteins produced by white blood cells when a foreign antigen enters the body. Antibodies work like “handcuffs,” immobilizing the invader. Each antibody is unique for a particular antigen
A blood transfusion will work ONLY if…
a person who is going to receive blood has a blood group that does not have antibodies against the donor blood antigens.
Blood type _ is the Universal Donor and blood type __ is the Universal Recipient
O, AB
Cardiac Output is…
measurement of the amount of blood that is pumped by the heart each minute. It can be used to judge fitness of a person and is determined by the stroke volume and heart rate.
Stroke Volume is…
the quantity of blood pumped with each heartbeat
Heart Rate is…
number of times the heart beats in one minute
Blood Pressure is…
measurement of the force exerted by blood upon the walls of the arteries.
Blood pressure is measured using a…
sphygmomanometer.
The average pressure in adults per heartbeat is…
120 mmHg.
Average diastolic pressure in adults is
80 mmHg.
Blood pressure (BP) depends on two factors:
Cardiac Output
Arterial Resistance
The baroreceptors will send nerve impulses to the ____when blood pressure is too high or too low.
medulla oblongata
Special baroreceptors (baro = pressure) in the walls of the ___ and ____ arteries detect changes in __
aorta and carotid arteries detect changes in BP
Issues with chronic high blood pressure:
weakens arteries, ruptures blood vessels causes organ damage
Issues with chronic low blood pressure:
poor nutrient and oxygen circulation
Exchange of matter is between the _____ and the ____
extracellular fluid (ECF) and the blood.
Extracellular fluid is the…
fluid that surrounds the tissue cells and blood; it is also known as interstitial fluid
Lymphatic System:
a system of fluid drainage in the body connected by a network of vessels (like veins), nodes, ducts, and organs, used to transport lymph.
Lymph:
a colourless fluid found in lymph vessels that contains some proteins, waste, debris, and carries cells to help fight infections.
Lymphocytes:
a type of white blood cell that produces antibodies. Produced in the bone marrow.
Functions of the Lymphatic System:
- Maintenance of Fluid Balance - collects and returns extracellular fluid to the blood
- Immunity - transports foreign particles and cellular debris to the lymph nodes where they can be filtered out and removed
- Transport Fats - absorb products of lipid digestion from the small intestine (lacteals) and transport through the body
Lymph Nodes:
bean-shaped structures that act as filters to trap foreign particles, and store lymphocytes.
Lymphoid organs..
Spleen: reservoir for blood and filtering site for lymph
Thymus: site of lymphocyte maturation
Metabolic wastes include:
CO2
Na+
Cl-
H+
Nitrogenous wastes, such as NH3 [most immediately toxic]
Excretion is…
the process of separating wastes from the body fluids and eliminating them
The kidneys play a crucial role in: (3)
Removing wastes
Balancing blood pH
Maintaining water balance
deamination is when…
The liver removes an amino group from proteins, forming ammonia (toxic!).
after deamination, the liver combines ammonia with ___ to create ____
combines ammonia with Carbon Dioxide to create Urea
Uric Acid is formed by the breakdown of…
nucleic acids
Renal arteries branch from the ____ and enter the ____
aorta, kidneys.
The kidney has three different structures/layers:
Cortex = outside
Medulla = middle
Renal Pelvis = hollow inner chamber which funnels urine to the ureter
